tBURI 


flANUAL  OF 


RY 


CHINQ. 


^2^  ^'  Jc^^M^. 


THE    KILBURN 

MANUAL  OF 


Elementary 


Teaching 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  TO  PRIMARY 
SCHOOL  WORK. 


New  York  and  Chicago. 

E    L.  KELLOGG  &  CO. 

1893. 


EDUCATIOH  DEFT. 


y^O  the  great  Fraternity  of  Teachers  this  humble  con- 
tribution to  our  Educational  literature  is  dedicated. 

The  hints  and  counsels  given  have  been  dictated  solely 
by  the  desire  to  aid  those  earnest  labourers  in  life's  field,  who 
are  striving — not  merely  to  instruct,  but  to  EDUCATE 
the  men  and  women  of  the  future. 

Throughout  the  Manual  the  aim  of  the  writers  has 
been  to  consider  every  subject  from  the  child's  standpoint, 
and  to  keep  in  view  the  future  of  the  child,  both  here  and 
hereafter.  Should  their  words  avail  to  promote  higher  and 
wider  ideas  of  education,  and  to  awaken  loftier  aspirations  in 
those  who  are  called  to  watch  over,  to  train,  and  to  guide  the 
children  of  this  great  nation,  they  will  not  have  been  written 
in  vain. 


iv.2405S7 


CONTENTS 


Chap. 


Pagf.. 


Introductory         

I 

I. 

School-life  should  be  Happy 

5 

II. 

Goon  Order 

13 

III. 

Securing  Attention        

21 

IV. 

Rewards  and  Punishments      ..         

31 

V. 

Attention  to  Details 

50 

VI 

How  TO  MAKE  Teaching  Efficient 

66 

VII. 

Reading        

...        83 

VIII. 

Spelling       

99 

IX. 

Writing        

...       106 

X. 

Arithmetic 

...       128 

XI. 

Object  Lessons       

...       176 

XII. 

Science  Teaching 

...       186 

XIII. 

Class  Talks 

...       194 

XIV. 

Composition           

...       216 

XV. 

Elocution 

246 

XVI. 

Parting  Counsels            ...        

...      268 

THE   KILBURN    MANUAL 

OF 

£ijEmeniiiai=^y  Yeaghing. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

QOST  people,  if  asked  the  question — What  is  the  object 
of  education  ?  would  reply — To  impart  knowledge, 
or,  To  prepare  children  for  their  future  life  both 
here  and  hereafter.  A  better  definition  would  be  —  The 
object  of  education  is  the  harmonious  development  of  the 
child's  whole  being — body,  soul,  and  spirit.  Pestalozzi  calls 
it  "  The  generating  of  power,"  and  Froebel  *'  The  perfect 
growth  of  the  whole  being." 

If  this  high  view  of  education  be  the  true  one — and  who 
can  gainsay  it  ? — it  proves,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  the  art  of 
teaching  is  the  noblest  of  all  arts,  and  the  one  which  will  best 
repay  untiring  labour,  thought,  and  study. 

Teachers  who  realise  this,  will  not  find  it  difficult  to 
rouse  themselves  to  that  enthusiastic  interest  in  their  work, 
which  is  essential  to  its  success.  They  will  entertain  just 
ideas  of  the  grandeur  of  their  vocation,  and  the  momentous 
issues  which  hang  upon  the  fulfilment  of  the  duties  it 
imposes.  And  this  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  the 
work  committed  to  them,  will  urge  them  on  to  be  ever  seeking 
to  make  themselves  more  worthy  of  it.  It  will  quicken  them 
to  do  their  utmost  in  the  great  cause.  By  prayer,  by  study, 
by  observation,  by  earnest  efforts  at  self-improvement,  each 
one  will  be  striving  to  become  more  and  more  such  a  "  Work- 


INTRODUCTORY. 


man  as  needeth  not  to  be  ashamed."  Such  teachers  will  be 
continually  on  the  look-out  for  improved  methods — for  a 
system  which  will  be  at  once  more  practical  and  more  in- 
telligent— for  everything,  in  short,  which  will  enable  them  to 
reach  the  highest  standard  of  excellence  in  their  work. 
They  will  not  rest  satisfied  with  what  has  been  hitherto 
attempted  and  accomplished,  either  by  themselves  or  others ; 
but,  believing  that  the  science  of  teaching  has  yet  great  strides 
to  make  on  the  road  to  perfection,  they  will  hold  themselves 
in  readiness  to  improve  wherever  improvement  is  possible. 

They  will  constantly  lay  to  heart  the  great  truth  that 
every  child  has  been  created  with  certain  gifts  and  talents — 
spiritual,  mental,  and  bodily;  yet  that  these  gifts  will  be  un- 
fruitful, or  may  even  be  perverted  to  bad  ends,  unless  they  are 
cultivated  and  trained.  They  know  that  the  germs  of  character 
lie  dormant  in  the  child,  and  that  it  is  for  education  to  under- 
take the  symmetrical  building-up  of  that  character.  Every  act, 
thought,  plan,  and  method  should  lead  up  to  this  supreme  end. 

To  such  earnest  and  thoughtful  instructors  the  following 
pages  are  addressed,  in  the  hope  that  they  will  not  only 
find  therein,  practical  suggestions  and  instructions  which 
may  be  of  use  in  their  most  arduous  and  honourable  calling, 
but  likewise  food  for  reflection,  together  with  encouragement 
to  plan  and  develop  improved  methods,  new  expedients,  fresh 
courses  of  action  for  themselves.  We  should  not  have  presumed 
to  add  to  the  multitude  of  teaching-manuals  which  already 
exist,  had  we  not  believed  that  a  great  deal  may  still  be  done 
to  make  the  Elementary  Schools  of  England  happier  places 
than  they  are  at  present,  and  to  render  the  teaching  given 
within  them,  at  once  more  effective  and  more  delightful. 

May  our  words,  we  hope  and  desire,  have  at  least  this  two- 
fold result : — 

(i.)  To  awaken  a  determination  no  longer  to  run  in  the  old 
ruts — smooth,  well-worn,  and  easy  though  they  may  seem — 
if  the  interests  of  true  education,  and  the  teacher's  own  high 
principle  and  self-respect,  point  out  the  duty  of  making  new 
ones. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


(2.)  To  lead  the  readers  of  this  little  work  to  devote  them- 
selves, with  ever  increasing  earnestness,  to  that  branch  of 
knowledge  which  should  be  the  study  par  excellence  of  all  who 
have  the  privilege  of  instructing  the  young — the  study  of 
THE  CHILD  and  child-nature. 

Oh !  how  will  any  thought  and  observation  devoted  to  this 
"  specific  subject "  be  repaid  a  hundred-fold  to  the  conscien- 
tious and  devoted  teacher  !  The  child  ! — with  all  the  glorious 
possibilities  that  lie  hidden  within  him,  waiting  for  the  deli- 
cate and  discriminating  touch  of  the  true  instructor  to  wake 
them  into  life !  The  child ! — with  his  own  personal  talents 
and  capabilities;  his  individual  share  of  good  and  bad 
qualities ;  his  powers  of  mind,  and  lights  and  shades  of 
character — what  else  can  better  engage  the  attention  of  those 
to  whom  is  committed  the  work  of  educating  him  ? 

But,  to  acquire  such  a  knowledge  as  this  implies,  of  mind  and 
character,  of  the  motives  which  actuate  human  beings — es- 
pecially the  motives  which  actuate  the  young — and  to  devise 
means  whereby  the  child  may  be  so  educated  as  to  become  a 
happy,  wise,  and  holy  being,  is  the  study  of  a  life-time. 


N.B. — This  Mamial  of  Teaching  is  only  intended  to  apply  to  the  time  set 
apart  for  secular  instruction  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  England.  But,  to 
prevent  misconception,  the  editors  beg  to  say  that  they  cannot  conceive  of  any  true 
education  as  existing  apart  from  sound  7'eligious  teaching,  and  are  of  opinion 
that  a  system  of  morality  which  had  not  its  fotmdation  in  the  Christian  faith 
would  be  unpractical  and  worthless. 


THE   KILByRN  MANUAL 


OF 


Elementally  Teaehing 


CHAPTER   I. 


School-life  should  be  Happy. 

OUR  first  chapter  shall  be  upon  the  duty  and  the  possi- 
bility of  making  school  a  happy  place  to  the  young 
scholars.  Some  will  call  in  question  a  teacher's  power 
to  do  this ;  others  may  even  dispute  its  advisability.  There 
is,  however,  this  convincing  argument  in  its  favour — that  no 
one  who  has  honestly  tried  to  make  education  a  source  of 
happiness  to  the  young,  has  ever  either  regretted  or  abandoned 
the  attempt. 

We  do  not  mean  that  a  child  will  find  all  to  his  mind  in  a 
well-managed  school.  No  ;  he  will  be  called  upon  to  endure 
much  salutary  discipline,  and  will  have  to  summon  self-control 
to  conquer  many  a  distasteful  task,  in  the  course  of  "the  harmo- 
nious development  of  his  whole  being  !  "  This  will  be  a  part 
of  his  education,  and  a  valuable  part.  Still, we  do,  nevertheless, 
assert,  that  an  English  child's  short  school-days  ought  to  be  a 
bright  spot  in  his  life,  the  memory  of  which  will  keep  green 
throughout  the  years  that  are  to  follow.  We  do  assert  that  what 
he  learns  at  school  may  be  so  taught  as  to  enlarge  his  intelli- 
gence, lay  the  foundations  of  culture  and  refinement,  and  give 
him  a  love  of  knowledge  and  a  zeal  for  self-improvement,  which 
will  raise  his  whole  life  above  the  sordid  thing  it  might  other- 


GCHOOt^LlFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY. 


wise  become.  Is  this  so  now  ?  Our  readers  must  answer  the 
question  for  themselves.  And  if  they  reply  in  the  negative,  we 
rejoin — Let  them  try  to  discover  why  this  is  not  the  result  of 
our  present  system  of  education. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  hints  for  making  school 
happy.     Firstly  : — 

The  Means  must  be  adapted  to  the  End. — The 

natural  growth  of  a  child,  both  mentally  and  physically,  is 
happy,  healthy  growth  ;  but  if  the  growth  is  to  be  natural, 
the  means  used  to  promote  it  must  be  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Everyone  wdll  admit  that  it  is  so  with  physical  growth. 
Food,  lodging,  exercise — all  must  answer  to  the  needs  of  the 
child.  But  we  do  not  always  realise  that  this  truth  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  mind — that  the  subjects  taught,  and 
the  way  they  are  taught,  should  be  exactly  adapted  to  the 
learner's  mental  requirements.  Then,  just  as  that  physical 
exercise  which  is  best  suited  to  the  growing  body  delights  the 
child,  so  will  the  proper  exercise  of  his  mind,  in  most  cases, 
afford  him  still  higher  pleasure. 

There  are  two  ways  of  imparting  knowledge.  One  consists 
in  cramming  the  learners  with  a  number  of  dry  facts  and 
statistics  which  are  of  little  or  no  interest  to  them,  and  which 
lead  to  such  results  as  might  be  expected— a  dislike  of  know- 
ledge, and  a  tendency  to  forget  the  little  acquired  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  other  plan  aims  at  the  training  and  development 
of  the  child  as  a  whole.  It  produces  in  the  intelligent  scholar 
those  pleasurable  feelings  which  naturally  result  from  the 
mind  growing  in  the  way  its  Creator  designed  that  it  should 
grow,  when  He  implanted  in  it  those  vast  possibihties  which 
lie  hidden  in  the  human  understanding.  Even  the  dull  child — 
when  thus  suitably  instructed — will  brighten  up  and  follow 
his  studies  with  a  certain  amount  of  pleasure. 

By  the  Study  of  Child-nature,  we  learn  how 
to  make  Knowledge  Attractive. — The  more  we  study 


SCHOOL-LIFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY. 


children,  the  moie  shall  we  understand  how  to  render  our 
teaching  acceptable  to  them.  There  is  much  latent  power  in 
the  young,  which  might  easily  be  turned  to  good  account  and 
guided  into  right  channels,  in  the  course  of  their  education  ; 
but  which  (sad  to  say ! )  is  often  wholly  ignored  by  the  care- 
less, superficial  instructor. 

For  instance,  that  propensity  of  the  child  to  he  always  doing  somethings 
should  suggest  to  us  the  desirability  of  keeping  him  ceaselessly 
and  happily  occupied,  from  the  moment  he  enters  school, 
till  he  marches  out  again — with  his  work  for  the  day  ended. 

Again  :  His  love  of  motion  should  impress  upon  us  the  truth 
that  it  is  positive  pain  to  children  to  sit  in  one  position  for  long 
together,  and  should  lead  us  to  intersperse  sedentary  occupa- 
tion with  plenty  of  brisk  physical  exercises,  and  rouse  us  to 
trample  down  that  natural  indolence,  which  tempts  us  to  dis- 
regard the  pleadings  of  nature  in  our  restless  young  scholars. 

Thirdly  :  There  exists  in  most  children  an  instinctive  desire  to 
give  outward  form  to  the  thoughts  that  arise  in  their  hearts. 
The  little  boy  making  mud  pies  in  a  back  yard,  or  his  more 
fortunate  brother  fashioning  gardens,  castles,  and  forts  out  of 
the  sand  on  the  seashore,  are  living  proofs  of  this  desire  ;  and 
the  Kindergarten  is  its  legitimate  outcome.  This  childish 
impulse  may  be  made  to  yield  good  fruit  all  through  school 
life,  if  plenty  of  employment  is  provided  for  the  hands — if  the 
scholar  is  allowed  to  draw,  model,  copy  specimens  of  good 
hand-writing,  express  his  own  thoughts  in  manuscript,  and 
engage  in  manual  work  of  various  kinds. 

Instead  of  trying  to  destroy  the  natural  instincts  of  children 
(when  those  instincts  are  innocent)  by  setting  an  iron  heel 
upon  them,  let  us  rather  utilise  them  in  the  work  of  education. 
It  is  true,  oh  how  true  !  that  the  contrary  mode  of  action  dwarfs 
the  child's  intellect,  and  too  often  puts  an  extinguisher  on 
the  best  and  most  hopeful  parts  of  his  character. 

It  is  our  duty  to  Infuse  Joy  into  the  Lives  of 
the  Young. — Surely  the  lives  of  the  children  who  attend 


8  SCHOOL-LIFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY. 


the  Elementary  Schools  of  this  country,  especially  in  our  great 
towns,  are  not  so  joyous  that  we  need  fear  to  add  what  bright- 
ness we  can  to  them  !  A  true  work  of  love  and  self-devotion 
is  it,  when  the  teacher  seeks,  by  kindly  ingenuity,  to  make 
the  brief  hours  which  the  children  of  the  poor  spend  under 
her  care,  a  time  of  such  bright  enjoyment  that  they  learn  to 
look  upon  the  school  as  their  second  home. 

A  Happy  School  means  a  Busy  School. — Let  it  be 

well  understood,  that — by  a  school  where  happiness  and  con- 
tentment reign — we  mean  a  school  which  is  full  of  busy  work, 
where  no  minute  is  wasted,  but  all  are  exerting  their  faculties 
to  the  utmost,  and  doing  with  their  might  whatsoever  their 
hands  find  to  do.  More  than  half  the  restlessness  and 
insubordination  that  perplex  teachers,  is  owing  to  their  own 
thoughtless  disregard  of  the  fact,  that  children  delight  to  feel 
they  are  making  progress  from  day  to  day,  and  hour  to  hour. 
They  will  cheerfully  undergo  a  great  deal  of  irksome  toil  when 
supported  by  this  exhilarating  consciousness. 

If  it  be  a  true  idea  of  education  that  it  develops  power — 
power  to  surmount  obstacles,  to  struggle  against  evil — to 
toil  — to  rise — is  it  not  a  fearful  error  to  allow  scholars  to 
squander  any  of  the  precious  hours  of  their  school-life,  to 
stupify  them  with  senseless  repetition  of  what  they  already 
know,  and  disgust  them  with  a  mechanical  routine  from 
which  they  can  derive  no  pleasure — in  short,  to  keep  them 
"marking  time"  and  beating  the  air  ?  The  wearied  looks  of 
the  little  ones  in  many  schools  seem  to  say—"  I  might  as  well 
be  playing  in  the  street  for  any  good  I  am  doing  here." 

One  great  aim  of  education  ought  certainly  to  be  —to  train 
the  child  to  work — to  work  on  a  system,  to  love  work,  and  to 
put  heart  and  mind  into  it. 

A  Happy  School  is  one  where  Firm  Discipline 
is  Maintained. — It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  children  like 
to  be  indulged.     On  the  contrary,  they  much  prefer  being 


SCHOOL-LIFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY. 


governed;  provided  that  the  government  is  kind,  firm,  and 
just.  Children  are  never  happy  when  under  a  weak,  flabby 
authority. 

At  the  same  time,  it  will  conduce  neither  to  the  happi- 
ness nor  the  efficiency  of  a  school  to  make  discipline  consist 
mainly  in  keeping  children  quiet.  Such  expedients  as  turning 
children  out  of  the  class,*  placing  them  to  stand  up  on  forms 
or  chairs,  forcing  them  to  remain  motionless  and  unoccupied 
for  a  given  time,  or  to  hold  hands  up  in  the  air  or  on  the  head, 
are  the  resource  of  ignorance  and  inefficiency,  and  shew  total 
want  of  common  sense.  A  good  teacher  knows  that  you 
must  break  in  restless  young  scholars — as  you  would  break 
in  a  spirited  young  horse — by  giving  them  plenty  of  exercise. 
Only,  with  human  beings,  the  exercise  must  be  mental  as  well 
as  physical.  Would  anyone  dream  of  training  a  fiery,  undis- 
cipHned  colt,  by  making  its  legs  fast  to  stakes  ?  Such  means, 
would,  it  is  true,  ensure  temporary  quietude,  but  the  animal 
would  remain  even  more  turbulent  than  it  was  before  the 
enforced  restraint,  as  would  be  convincingly  proved  the  instant 
it  was  loosed. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  most  disorderly  children 
can  be  subdued  and  trained,  by  degrees,  into  cheerful,  atten- 
tive learners,  if  teachers  will  but  persevere  in  giving  them  con- 
stant spells  of  brisk  movement,  alternating  with  plenty  of 
varied,  interesting  study.  But  this  study  must  be  so  skilfully 
planned  that  each  earnest  effort  a  scholar  makes  will  be 
crowned  with  a  measure  of  success.  It  must  be  real  work, 
and  not  a  make-shift  expedient  for  passing  away  the  time — 
as,  when  sums  or  copies  are  placed  on  the  board  hap-hazard, 
test -cards  continually  used,  reading  reduced  to  a  mere  me- 
chanical dvive,  (or  drone)  through  the  reading  books — while  the 
teaching  of  geography  and  science  is  limited  to  committing  to 
memory  strmgs  of  phrases  from  text-books  ;  when,  worst  of 
all,  the  whole  of  school-time  is  broken  up  by  continual  do- 

*Is  it  necessary  to  say  that  a  child  should  never  be  turned  out  of  the  room?  Grave  evils 
may  result  from  this  practice. 


lO  SCHOOL-LIFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY. 

nothing  intervals,  caused  by  the  teacher's  lack  of  administra- 
tive power  and  her  inability  to  keep  the  sharper  children  at 
work  while  the  laggards  catch  them  up  in  arithmetic  or 
other  lessons.  How  can  there  be  order  when  at  least  half 
the  children  are  sitting  with  idle  hands,  and,  as  a  natural 
consequence,  either  talking,  or  engaged  in  mischief  ? 

A  Happy  School  cannot  co- exist  with  Per- 
petual Fault-finding. — The  most  fruitful  source  of  worry 
and  unhappiness  to  children  is  an  irritable  temper  in  their 
teacher.  A  high-spirited  child  will  not  bear  nagging  any  more 
than  a  thorough-bred  horse  will  bear  the  jerking  of  the  curb. 
True,  the  perpetual  scolding  that  obtains  in  some  class-rooms 
is  not  always  due  to  the  teacher's  bad  temper;  it  is  sometimes 
a  sad  confession  of  her  own  impotence.  Not  having  learned 
how  to  preserve  order  with  ease  to  herself  and  benefit  to 
her  pupils,  her  nerves  become  so  strained  that  it  can  hardly 
occasion  surprise  if  relief  is  sought  in — what  the  children 
expressively  term — "  Always  grumbling  at  us."  The  effect, 
however,  is  most  disastrous.  The  scholars  learn  to  dislike 
Doth  their  school  and  its  teacher,  while  the  constant  chiding 
rouses  them  to  resistance. 

We  shall  have  more  to  say,  later  on,  upon  the  important 
points  of  maintaining  discipline  and  securing  attention.  Mean- 
while, we  would  address  the  following  words  of  counsel  to 
any  who  desire  earnestly  to  have  a  happy,  hard-working  school, 
but  who  find  their  efforts  neutralised  through  their  inabihty  to 
keep  order : — 

(a)  When  your  children  seem  unruly,  idle,  and  troublesome, 
be  quite  sure  the  fault  lies  in  yourself,  and  humbly  set  to  work 
to  find,  and  apply  a  remedy. 

(b)  Let  the  scholars  instinctively  recognise  that  you  mean 
both  to  control  them  and  to  urge  them  on  to  all  that  they 
ought  to  be,  and  do. 

(c)  Have  ready  abundance  of  nutritious  and  palatable 
food,  in  the  shape  of  good,  energetic,  interesting  teaching, 


SCHOOL-LIFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY.  II 

and  dispense  this  diet  with  unintermittent  diHgence  and 
patience. 

fdj  Give  each  child  something  to  do  the  instant  he  enters  the 
schoolroom,  and  keep  him  happy — with  constant  and  varied 
occupation — until  the  time  for  closing  arrives. 

(ej  Let  your  pupils  see  that  you  are  not  only  well  up  in  all  the 
subjects  taught,  but  likewise  skilful  in  such  technical  details 
as  writing  on  the  blackboard,  etc. 

(f)  Let  them  feel  that  a  vigilant  though  kindly  eye  is  ever 
upon  them,  that  no  fault  goes  unnoticed,  and  that  you  are 
perfectly  impartial. 

Then— in  most  cases — they  will  lay  down  their  offensive 
weapons,  and  their  surrender  will  be  complete  and  permanent. 

Attention  must  be  paid  from  a  higher  motive 
than  Inclination. — While  all  admit  that  that  teacher 
is  eminently  successful  who  contrives  to  make  learning  so 
delightful  to  a  class  that  the  children  cannot  help  becoming  ab- 
sorbed in  the  lessons,  and  instinctively  obeying  her  commands, 
it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  imagine  that  obedience  and 
attention  are  to  rest  upon  no  higher  basis  than  inclination. 
Attention  implies  effort,  and  children  must  obey  and  attend — 
Inot  merely  because  it  is  pleasant,  but  because  it  is  right.  No 
child  is  always  inclined  to  be  studious  and  docile ;  but,  whether 
he  is  inclined  or  not,  the  good  habits  he  forms,  and  the  good 
principles  he  learns,  should  impel  him  to  submit. 

Good  Habits  must  be  formed.— We  see,  therefore, 
that  a  school  can  hardly  be  invariably  a  happy  and  efficient 
school,  unless  right  habits  of  attention  and  obedience  are 
formed.  A  habit  has  been  described  as  the  "Tendency  to  do 
that  which  has  often  been  done  before  ;  "  or  it  may  be  termed, 
"A  chain  forged  by  repeated  efforts  in  the  same  direction." 
The  power  to  acquire  good  habits  is  dormant  in  every  child  born 
into  the  world,  and  the  more  unsatisfactory  are  his  home 
surroundings,  the  more  necessary  is  it  that  the  school  should 


12  SCHOOL-LIFE    SHOULD    BE    HAPPY. 

train  him  in  such  habits,  that,  at  the  call  of  duty,  he  can  summon 
self-command  to  force  himself  to  accomplish  what  is  required 
of  him. 

This,  however,  is  a  very  wide  subject.  We  have  only 
touched  upon  it  here  to  shew  that  we  are  not  so  sanguine  as 
to  expect  education  to  be  carried  on  wholly  by  means  of 
"  moral 'suasion ! "  There  can,  on  the  contrary,  be  no  real 
worth  or  happiness  in  anything  that  does  not  rest  on  the  grand 
foundation  of  religion,  morality,  and  self-restraint. 

Still,  this  does  not  in  any  degree  detract  from  the  truth  of 
what  we  have  advanced  in  this  chapter,  viz.,  that  school-life 
can  become  delightful  both  to  teachers  and  children;  that 
lessons  may,  by  means  of  skilful  teaching,  become  a  pleasure ; 
that  good  order  is  chiefly  promoted  by  constant  occupa- 
tion, including  abundance  of  drill;  and  that  habits  of 
obedience  and  attention  will  thus  be  almost  insensibly  formed. 
If — in  addition — the  teacher  is  one  who  has  a  genuine  love 
for  her  work;  if  she  is  uniformly  hopeful,  kind,  firm,  and 
dihgent ;  if — like  a  good  parent — she  sympathises  with  every 
effort  made  to  improve,  and  is  solicitous  that  every  child  shall 
grow  towards  perfection,  then  that  school  bids  fair  to  be  an 
ideal  school,  and  such  as  will  exercise  an  incalculable  influ- 
ence for  good  over  all  that  are  brought  into  touch  with  it. 


N.B. — Throughout  this  Manual,  the  teacher  is  (for  convenience  sake )  spoken 
of  in  the  feminine  gender  and  the  child  in  the  masculine.  It  is  almost  needless 
to  say  that  the  observations  and  suggestions  juade  apply  equally  to  boys  andgtrls, 
and  to  teachers  of  either  sex. 


13 


CHAPTER  II. 


Good     Order. 

g^OOiy  Order  is  Essential,— Without  good  order,  any 
\w)  real  instruction  is  impossible;  yet  it  is  the  common 
complaint  of  young  teachers  that  their  scholars  are 
undisciplined  and  unruly.  They  forget  that  the  maintenance 
of  order  forms  an  important  part  of  the  art  of  government — 
the  most  difficult  of  all  arts — and  that  the  principles  and  rules 
of  wise  and  good  government  must  be  mastered,  ere  success 
can  be  hoped  for.  Let  us  briefly  examine  some  of  these  rules 
and  principles : — 

— ^(i.)\The^st  thing  essential  to  good  order  is  a  firm  deter- 
minatj^on  to  have  it|  Let  the  teacher  bear  in  mind  that  all 
authority  comes  from  on  High,  and  that  she  is  placed  in  her 
present  position  to  lead,  to  rule,  to  train  those  under  her  both 
to  learn  and  to  obey.  She  must,  therefore,  banish  all  weakness 
and  timidity,  and  present  herself  before  her  scholars  with 
that  quiet,  assured  manner  which  —  they  will  be  quick  ^ 
to  see — cannot  be  trifled  with.  Let  her  assume  a  proper 
ascendency  over  them  from  the  beginning,  and  she  will  have  a 
happy  class  of  respectful,  obedient  pupils.  She  must  always 
look  steadily_at  them  when  she  speaks,  and  avoid  a  hurried, 
nervous  manner.  She  must  speak  in  a  well-pitched  tone, 
and  with  great  distinctness  ;  but  should  not  raise  her  voice, 
even  when  an  order  is  disobeyed. 

Importance  of  Maintaining  Discipline  by  the 
Eye. — The  teacher  should  so  stand  or  sit  that  her  eye  is 
continually  upon  the  whole  class.  She  needs  to  train  herself 
to  supervise  every  individual  under  her  care  at  the  same  time. 
She  cannot,  of  course,  distinguish  the  features  of  each  pupil. 


14  GOOD    ORDER. 


but  she  can,  by  practice,  greatly  widen  her  range  of  vision. 
Anyone  may  do  this,  in  a  certain  degree.  It  is  really  neces- 
sary to  good  discipline  that  a  watchful  eye  should  be  ever 
on  the  class,  but  this  should  be  managed  without  apparent 
effort.  Even  when  using  the  blackboard,  the  teacher  must 
contrive  not  to  turn  her  back  to  the  children. 

Tendency  to  Disorder  must  be  Checked  In- 
stantly.— Apparently  trifling  acts  of  disobedience,  or  slight 
inattention,  must  be  noticed  at  once.  Unless  the  first  whis- 
perer is  silenced,  there  will  soon  be  a  dozen  children  talking. 
The  first  slight  fault,  whatever  it  may  be,  must  be  visited  upon 
the  offender  with  decision  and  promptitude.  The  question 
arises — how  is  this  to  be  done  ? 

If  possible,  not  by  interrupting  the  teaching  and  throwing 
the  whole  class  back  two  or  three  minutes  with  their  work  ; 
but  in  the  quietest  manner  possible.  If  it  is  a  solitary  case  of 
inattention,  a  brief  pause,  or  a  significant  glance,  or  a  question 
addressed  to  the  offender,  will  often  remedy  the  matter, 
without  anyone  else  being  the  wiser.  The  same  treatment 
will  often  stop  talking;  but,  if  it  fails,  the  teacher  may  bring 
confusion  on  the  culprit  by  silently  writing  his  name  on  the 
blackboard,  or  by  saying  quietly — **  If  the  child  who  is  whis- 
pering has  anything  really  wise  and  clever  to  say,  will  he 
come  and  stand  by  me  and  let  tlie  whole  class  hear  it  ?  " 

C  The  Control  exercised  should  be  Quiet  and 
Good-Humour ed.^)— Control  must  be  quietly  exercised^ 
The  teacher  who  is  desirous  to  maintain  good  discipline,  must 
be  calm  and  self-possessed  herself.  Good  teachers  never  either 
scold,  or  teach  noisily.  They  are  too  well  aware  that  education 
cannot  be  carried  on  amid  interruptions,  and  that  the  worst 
of  all  interruptions  are  those  caused  by  the  teacher's  own 
want  of  temper  and  self-possession.  Besides,  scolding  and 
angry  fault-finding  are  lowering  to  the  high,  sacred  office  of  a 
teacher. 


GOOD    ORDER.  I5 


Teachers  should  also  watch  against  a  habit  of  saying 
**Hush-h-h!"  continually.  It  is  a  trick  which  is  easily  ac- 
quired, and  the  effect  is  not  pleasant. 

In  short,  the  less  demonstrative  and  self-asserting  a  teacher's 
rule  is,  the  more  effective  will  it  be.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to 
adopt  an  over-bearing,  dictatorial  manner,  "  with  frowning 
brow  and  lip  compressed."  The  assumption  of  power  often 
makes  a  teacher  seem  ridiculous.  True  authority  is  unosten- 
tatious and  keeps  in  the  background ;  it  is  something  that 
is  felt,  not  seen.  It  then  most  resembles  the  highest  of  all 
authority — the  supreme  rule  of  Almighty  God.  Though 
omnipotent.  He  is  invisible,  and  works  His  sovereign  will 
in  silence  and  tranquility. 

Discipline   should    be   Steady   aiid    ITniform.— 

There  must  be  no  variableness  or  uncertainty  about  the  control 
exercised.  The  children  should  not  feel  that  there  are  times 
and  seasons  when  they  may  take  liberties,  or  they  will  calculate 
chances  and  end  by  setting  the  teacher  at  defiance.  Neither 
should  any  teacher  rest  satisfied  with  exacting  obedience  from 
the  children  merely  when  she  is  present.  Children  are  capable 
of  exerting  self-control,  and  this  capacity  should  be  developed. 
If  a  child  is  taught  to  do  right  because  it  is  right,  and  not  only 
because  the  teacher's  eyes  are  upon  him,  he  will  have 
mastered  a  lesson  which  will  be  of  more  value  than  all  the 
learning  in  the  world.  The  members  of  a  school,  no  less 
than  the  members  of  an  army,  are  far  happier  when  they 
are  well-disciplined.  Even  outside  the  schoolroom,  the 
teacher's  righteous  authority  should  make  itself  felt— in  the 
street  or  the  playground. 

Order   must    be    Maintained    Perseveringly.— 

Discipline  ought  to  be  continuous.  It  must  last  on ;  it  must 
wear  well.  The  fearless  teacher,  who  calmly  and  persistently 
makes  it  felt  that  she  knows  she  has  the  right  to  be  obeyed, 
becomes  invested  with  a  sort  of  dignity    and  ends  by  com- 


l6  GOOD    ORDER. 


manding  respect.  But  she  must  beware  of  relaxing  her  efforts. 
They  will  avail  little,  unless  she  perseveres  to  the  end  in  ruling 
those  under  her  with  diligence. 

One  great  step  towards  having  an  orderly  school  is  gained, 
when  the  teacher,  by  wise  and  consistent  management, 
succeeds  in  convincing  the  children,  that  it  is  a  much  pleasanter 
thing  to  be  good  than  naughty.  Some  teachers  have  a 
wonderful  knack  of  making  it  actually  easier  for  a  child  to  do 
right  than  wrong. 

The  Perfection  of  Discipline. — Perfect  order  is  pro- 
cured when  the  child  is  induced  to  take  himself  in  hand,  and 
restrain  his  inclination  to  talk,  or  to  be  idle  and  insubordinate. 
Control  may  be  exercised  either  from  within  or  from  without. 
The  parent's  or  teacher's  will  must  be  the  will  of  the  child  at 
first,  for  the  latter  can  find  true  happiness  only  when  under  the 
dominion  of  a  steady,  reasonable  will  outside  of  himself. 

But  there  is  a  point  beyond  which  the  will  of  the  parent  or 
teacher  should  not  be  carried.  They  have  to  supplement  the 
child's  will,  not  to  supplant  it :  to  train,  not  to  cripple  it.  As 
the  knowledge  of  right  is  developed  by  sound  religious 
teaching,  he  ought  surely  to  learn  to  do  right  from  prin- 
ciple, not  only  from  constraint.  Whenever  the  child— while 
conscious  of  his  own  imperious  desire  to  do  what  is  most 
pleasant  to  himself — yet  refrains,  for  conscience'  sake,  from 
what  is  forbidden,  he  has  taken  a  step  in  the  upward  path 
that  leads  to  the  Eternal  City. 

But,  alas!  we  have  only  to  look  around  us,  to  see  how 
deplorably  deficient  is  the  present  generation  in  this  quality 
of  self-restraint.  How  valuable,  then,  how  necessary  is  its 
inculcation !  Here,  surely,  an  ounce  of  prevention  is 
worth  many  pounds  of  attempted  cure.  The  opportunities 
which  school-life  affords  of  training  the  will  are  innumerable, 
and  not  until  the  teacher  sees  an  earnest  attempt  en  the  part 
of  her  pupils  to  control  themselves^  should  she  consider  that  her 
method  of  securing  good  order  is  satisfactory.     The  external 


GOOD   ORDER.  I7 


3>rder  with  which  some  rest  content,  is  but  the  outward  sign 
of  good  government.  Teachers  must  aim  at  being  something 
more  than  policemen. 

(  The  Teacher  should  try  to  have  the  School 
always  on  her  Side.^How  this  is  to  be  effected,  must 
be  left  to  personal  tact  to  discover.  But,  in  some  way  or 
other,  it  is  essential  for  the  scholars  to  realise,  that  the  teacher 
relies  on  their  co-operation  in  the  performance  of  her  duties. 
What  a  wholesome  effect  it  has  on  children,  when  they 
feel  that  the  honour  and  good  name  of  their  school  depend 
on  themselves !  A  visitor  once  asked  the  head  of  a  school  how 
his  "excellent  results"  had  been  obtained  ;  the  reply  was,  that 
this  was  due  to  the  unselfish  devotion  of  the  elder  boys 
to  the  interests  of  the  school.  Let  a  teacher  ever  remember 
that  the  material  of  a  good  school  is  to  be  found  in  the 
scholars,  and  that  without  their  support  she  cannot  succeed. 
Dr.  Arnold  had  a  marvellous  gift  for  thus  creating  an  esprit  de 
corps.     He  used  to  call  the  elder  boys  his  "  coadjutors." 

The  child,  in  leaving  home  for  school,  enters  a  large  com- 
munity— a  community  that  has  its  laws  and  its  rights,  and 
also  the  power  to  confer  great  benefits.  When  he  finds 
that  he  is  given  a  voice  in  the  arrangement  of  some  school 
detail,  he  probably  realises,  for  the  first  time,  the  fact  that 
his  opinion  is  of  any  consequence,  and  awakens  to  a  sense  of 
his  responsibility. 

The  creation  of  a  loyal  spirit  is  a  department  of  *'good 
order "  which  will  amply  repay  careful  and  prolonged  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.     / 

The  Teacher  must  not  close  her  ears  altogether 
to  adverse  reports  concerning  the  Scholars. — While 
all  teachers  should  rigidly  put  down  tale-bearing,  it  would  not 
be  right  to  refuse  to  listen  to  those  who  may  have  just  cause 
of  complaint  against  the  children,  or  who  may  inform  them  of 
misdemeanours  they    might    otherwise    remain   ignorant  of. 

c 


l8  GOOD   ORDER. 


Many  grievous  things  may  happen  which  a  teacher  cannot 
possibly  know  unless  the  more  trustworthy  scholars  inform 
her  respecting  them.  Teachers  who  labour  to  create  a  healthy 
public  feeling  in  their  school,  will  endeavour  to  induce  the 
elder  pupils  to  suppress  by  their  own  personal  exertions  all 
that  is  wrong  and  vicious  before  calling  in  the  aid  of  those  in 
authority. 

They  should  not  fail  to  teach  how  wrong  it  is  to  take 
part  with  evil-doers,  and  what  high  principle  and  moral 
courage  it  needs,  both  to  put  down  mal-practices  ourselves, 
and  to  appeal,  when  necessary,  to  those  who  have  power  to 
apply  a  remedy.  It  should  be  explained  that  while  tale-bearing 
is  to  be  utterly  condemned — as  springing  from  mean  and 
malicious  motives — it  is  a  plain  duty  to  report  such  faults  as 
might  bring  the  school  into  disrepute,  or  have  other  grave 
consequences — such  wrong-doing,  for  instance,  as  the  destruc- 
tion of  property,  or  the  teasing  and  bullying  of  the  younger 
children.  Complaints  brought  by  the  elder  scholars  should 
be  received  in  private,  and  not  acted  upon  unless  the  teacher 
sees  sufficient  cause  for  doing  so. 

Wholesale  Condemnation  of  the  Children  is 
Unwise. — It  is  an  unmistakable  sign  of  incapacity  when 
a  teacher  is  ready  to  lay  the  blame  of  her  ill  success  upon  her 
charges.  Managers,  inspectors — nay,  the  children  themselves 
— feel  contempt  for  teachers  who  burst  out  into  complaints 
about  the  unruliness  and  stupidity  of  their  pupils.  They  know 
very  well  that  a  class  is  almost  invariably  quiet  and  studious 
when  properly  managed.  Instead  of  grumbling  about  her  tools 
and  material  (like  a  bad  workman),  let  the  incapable  teacher 
labour  to  improve  herself  and  her  methods,  and  she  will  soon 
teach  with  delight  to  herself  and  benefit  to  her  pupils. 

Matters  of  Small  Importance  can  be  Amended 
by  a  Hint. — Suggestions  about  trifling  matters  are  often 
better  than  commands.    General  hints  and  instructions  about 


GOOD   ORDER.  I9 


manner,  dress,  neatness,  are  usually  better  than  denunciation 
of  a  particular  offender.  Children  are  often  very  sensitive, 
and  it  may  not  be  a  child's  fault  that  his  manner  is  rough  and 
his  clothes  are  ragged. 

Reporting  Children  to  their  Parents. — This  should 
he  very  sparingly  resorted  to,  and  any  communications  of  the 
sort  should  have  reference  to  such  matters  only  as  are  under 
their  control,  e.g.,  irregularity  of  attendance,  neglect  of  home- 
lessons,  or  untidy  personal  appearance.  There  may  be 
■exceptional  cases  of  children  persistently  rebellious,  imper- 
tinent, and  vicious,  when  it  becomes  a  duty  to  warn  the 
parents,  that,  unless  there  is  amendment,  expulsion  must  be 
the  penalty.  To  expel  scholars  in  what  appears  a  sudden 
manner,  without  notifying  fathers  and  mothers  of  the  previous 
wrong-doing  of  their  children,  is  not  fair  or  just  towards  them. 
Much  tact  is  needed  in  regard  to  remarks  made  to  parents  on 
their  children's  conduct,  and,  as  a  rule,  unless  something 
agreeable  can  be  said,  "golden  silence"  had  best  be  observed. 

Teachers  should  not  forget  that  a  certain  respect  is  due 
from  themselves  to  the  parents  of  their  pupils,  as  being  the 
God-appointed  guardians  of  the  latter  and  bound  to  support 
their  rights.  They  should  studiously  guard  against  making 
.any  disparaging  remarks  respecting  the  father  or  mother  of 
any  child,  either  before  the  child  himself,  or  the  other  scholars. 

Messages  should  not  be  sent  by  the  children.  Either  a 
responsible  person  should  call,  or  a  note  be  written. 

Notes  to  parents  should  be  well  written,  on  good  paper,  en- 
closed in  an  envelope,  and  should  begin  "Dear  Sir,"  or  "Dear 
Madam,"  etc.,  and  never  "  Mrs.  Smith,"  etc.  They  should  be 
couched  in  polite,  moderate  terms.  It  often  shows  good  sense 
to  ask  as  a  favour  what  we  might  demand  as  a  right. 

Interviews  with  Parents  sometimes  Painful, — 

Teachers  have  sometimes  much  to  bear  from  the  injustice  or 
€ven  rudeness  of  parents.     The  latter  hear   some  garbled 


20  GOOD    ORDER. 


account  of  what  has  taken  place  at  the  school,  and  rush  off  to- 
vent  their  indignation  upon  the  teacher.  Then  will  be  the 
time  for  the  latter  to  show  that  calmness  and  self-control 
which  are  of  such  priceless  value  in  all  relations  of  life,  and  to 
return  the  **Soft  answer  that  turneth  away  wrath." 
,  First,  let  the  teacher  refuse  to  speak  to  the  parent  before 
the  class.  The  hall  or  corridor  must  be  used  if  there  is  no  private 
room  available.  Next,  let  her  remember  that  the  parents' 
natural  affection  for  their  child  makes  them  sensitive  about  ill- 
treatment,  and  that  they  have  doubtless  heard  an  exaggerated 
version  of  what  has  happened — such  an  account  as  would 
justify  them  in  being  angry,  were  it  true.  Let  the  teacher 
quietly  reply,  "Yes,  but  you  have  only  heard  one  side;  let  me 
put  the  other  before  you."  If  she  does  this  gently  and  good- 
humouredly,  explaining  that  she  has  acted  for  the  child's  good,, 
and  expressing  her  desire  for  its  true  weal,  she  may  not  only 
pour  oil  upon  the  troubled  water,  but  secure  a  good  friend  for 
the  school  and  a  coadjutor  in  the  child's  education. 

When  parents  are  too  excited  to  listen  to  reason,  it  is  better 
to  ask  them  to  call  again  after  school  is  over. 

The  Teacher  must  "be  herself  an  Example  of 
Order. — Pupils  will  be  more  influenced  by  a  teacher's  ex- 
ample than  by  her  words.  Let  her  be  at  her  post — day  after 
day — ten  minutes  before  the  time  for  opening,  if  possible,, 
ready  with  a  cheerful  greeting  for  her  pupils,  and  arranging 
beforehand  those  external  details  which  so  greatly  affect  the 
work ;  let  her  be  always  punctual,  alert,  and  diligent,  and  the 
results  of  her  conscientiousness  will  soon  be  reflected  in  the 
order  and  discipline  of  the  school. 


21 


CHAPTER  III. 


Securing   Attention. 

V^IVHE  question  of  good  order  leads  naturally  to  that  of 
xSi^  attention^  for  the  immediate  object  of  discipline  or  order 
is  to  enable  the  child  to  pay  undivided  attention — to 
concentrate  his  thoughts  upon  the  subject  in  hand.  At  the 
same  time,  we  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that 
absence  of  noise  will,  of  itself,  induce  attention.  It  is  quite 
possible  to  have  perfect  quietness  along  with  inattentive 
pupils.  Children  may  be  very  orderly,  and  yet  in  a  condition 
of  complete  mental  inactivity.  It  is  the  fruitful  quietness 
of  life  and  progress  that  is  wanted  in  our  schools,  and  not 
the  sterile  quietness  of  decay  and  death.  The  test  of  good 
order  is  not  noiselessness,  but  the  power  to  obtain  quiet  at 
a  moment's  notice. 

Definition  of  Attention. — Attention  means  the  fixing 
of  the  mind  upon  one  object  or  subject  to  the  exclusion  of 
others,  and  is  a  mental  power  of  the  utmost  importance  both 
to  old  and  young.  It  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  habit  which, 
like  most  other  habits,  can  be  easily  acquired  in  early  life. 
Although  not  a  faculty  by  itself,  like  memory  or  reason,  it  is 
nevertheless  necessary  for  the  effective  use  of  all  the  other 
faculties.  Of  itself,  it  gives  us  nothing,  and  yet  it  helps  us  to 
accomplish  everything.  Perfect  attention  implies  a  continuous 
and  voluntary  fixing  of  the  mind  on  whatever  is  presented  to 
its  consideration,  in  spite  of  any  natural  inclination  to  be 
volatile.  It  also  supposes  the  ability  to  change  from  one 
subject  to  another  without  loss  of  thinking-power.  Its  cul- 
tivation in  childhood  is  important,  as  it  secures  for  after  years 
the  capacity  for  persevering  thought  and  steady  application. 


22  SECURING   ATTENTION. 


and  consequently,   ensures    success  in   any  of  life's  varied 
callings. 

Early  Training  is  Essential. — Attention  is,  to  some 
extent,  a  part  of  child-nature  ;  for  we  see  that  children  can  fix 
their  minds  intently  upon  what  interests  them  or  attracts  their 
notice.  But  we  cannot  compel  attention,  though  we  may 
punish  for  inattention.  Therefore  a  teacher's  wisest  plan  is  to- 
make  attention,  as  far  as  possible,  a  fixed  habit.  We  must, 
however,  be  patient.  Concentration  of  mind  is  not  gained  in  a 
day.  Time  is  wanted  for  its  growth  and  cultivation,  and  w& 
must  be  willing  to  wait  for  the  visible  results  of  our  careful 
training,  and  to  build  up  gradually  a  habit  of  attending  to  ths 
matter  in  hand. 

Preliminaries.  —  Before  going  on  to  consider  sundry 
methods  of  cultivating  the  power  of  concentration  of  mind,  we 
shall  do  well  to  glance  at  certain  external  means  of  obtaining 
attention  from  the  children  attending  our  schools.  To  begirt 
with,  they  must  be  made  to  understand  that  attention  is  expected  of 
them  ;  that  every  teacher  has  a  right  to  require,  that  when  she 
speaks  her  words  shall  be  listened  to,  and  an  effort  made  to- 
understand  their  meaning.  Strange  to  say,  many  teachers  fail 
to  impress  this  lesson  on  their  pupils,  and  allow  them  to  listen: 
or  not,  just  as  the  fancy  takes  them,  often  even  repeating 
words  for  their  benefit  when  they  are  so  wanting  in  respect  as- 
to  be  looking  about  them  while  she  speaks.  Let  it  then  be 
made  an  invariable  rule,  that : — 

The  Children  look  at  those  ^w^ho  Address 
them. — Upon  taking  charge  of  a  new  class,  almost  the  first 
thing  a  teacher  should  notice,  is  whether  every  child  in  the 
class  looks  at  her  when  she  speaks  to  them  collectively.  If 
not,  it  will  not  be  uncharitable  to  suppose  that  they  have  been 
imperfectly  trained,  and  she  must  set  to  work  to  remedy  the 
evil  without  delay.  At  the  recognised  signal  or  the  word 
"attention!"  every   child  must   look  at  her  instantly;   and 


SECURING    ATTENTION.  23 


throughout  all  oral  lessons  she  must  ascertain  that  no  eye 
wanders.  It  will  be  well  to  impress  on  the  children  that  it  is 
considered  bad  manners  not  to  look  at  a  person  who  addresses 
them. 

This  is  the  first  indispensable  condition  of  securing  attention. 

Interruptions    must   be    Guarded    Against.— In 

the  second  place,  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  ensure 
freedom  from  interruption.  The  organisation  should  be  so 
perfect,  that  no  necessity  need  arise  for  "  fetchmg  and  carrying" 
during  school-hours.  Messages  from  one  teacher  to  another, 
or  from  one  class-room  to  another,  should  be  interdicted. 
The  head-teacher  should  see  that  each  class-room  is  well 
supplied  with  necessaries,  so  that  the  need  to  borrow  will  not 
occur?  She  should  make  a  rule — and  insist  upon  its  being 
kept — that  loans  of  maps,  pictures,  objects,  etc.,  must  be 
applied  for  before  school  commences,  or  at  some  other 
permitted  time;  also  that  everything  needed  for  the  morning's 
(or  afternoon's)  work  should  be  placed  ready.  That  school 
would,  indeed,  be  ill-managed,  in  which  teachers  were  allowed 
to  apply  for  stores  during  school-hours  ! 

Further  than  this,  a  good  teacher  avoids  all  interruptions 
that  come  from  noisy  teaching,  such  as  talking  in  too  high  a 
key;  repeatedly  ringing  a  bell,  striking  a  desk,  or  calling  out 
"  silence,"  especially  in  the  middle  of  a  lesson  ;  censuring 
pupils  pubHcly  ;  and  other  disturbing  habits  of  a  like  nature. 

If  a  child  is  obliged  to  go  out  of  the  room  for  any  purpose,  he 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  sent  during  the  physical  exercises  which 
ought  to  come  between  each  lesson.  (N.B. — It  is  of  real  im- 
portance, on  several  grounds,  that  the  teacher  should  notice 
whether  a  child  is  absent  from  the  class-room  more  than 
the  precise  time  needed  for  the  purpose  ;  and,  if  so,  that 
she  should  immediately  send  in  search  of  him.) 

Children  must  be  taught  to  Work  on  through 
Interruptions. — While  the  teacher  does  her  best  to  prevent 


24  SECURING   ATTENTION. 


interruptions,  she  should  yet  train  her  pupils  to  exercise  self- 
restraint  by  continuing  to  work  steadily,  no  matter  what  may 
occur — who  enters  the  room  or  leaves  it,  etc.  Frequent  rising 
from  the  seat,  as  a  mark  of  respect,  is  much  to  be  deprecated. 
As  a  rule,  children  should  only  stand  up  when  an  Inspector,  a 
Clergyman,  or  a  Manager  enters  the  room  ;  and  they  should 
never  do  this  until  the  signal  for  it  is  given.  The  head-mis- 
tress— as  she  passes  round  the  class-rooms — will  do  well  to 
forbid  any  standing  up  on  her  account ;  and,  if  managers  pay 
frequent  visits,  they  will  probably  prefer  that  the  same  custom 
should  hold  good  in  regard  to  themselves.  They  will  find  the 
amount  of  earnestness  and  attention  with  which  the  scholars 
continue  to  work,  spite  of  their  entrance,  is  a  good  test  of  the 
skilful  organisation  of  the  school. 

Teacliers  should  not  stand  too  near  the  Class.— 

A  teacher's  rostrum  or  desk  should  be  placed  so  that  her 
glance  can  take  in  every  child  in  the  room.  She  should  teach 
from  the  rostrum,  or  stand  at  least  three  feet  from  the  first 
row  of  desks.  It  is  almost  needless  to  say,  that  when  a  class 
is  brought  out  for  reading  or  any  other  purpose,  the  children 
should  never  be  permitted  to  crowd  round  her,  but  be  arranged 
with  mihtary  precision  in  a  line,  or  round  three  parts  of  a 
square.  Under  these  circumstances  she  should  make  it  a  rule 
that  no  two  children  stand  so  close  together  as  to  touch  one 
another. 

Lessons   ought   never    to    be    Prolonged.— The 

prolonging  of  lessons  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  teacher,  or 
because  she  unwisely  thinks  it  better  to  continue  so  long  as 
a  fair  proportion  of  the  class  appear  interested,  is  a  breach  of 
trust  towards  the  education  authorities,  and  an  injustice  to  the 
children.  The  time-table  is  understood  to  be  conscientiously 
adhered  to,  and  no  right-minded  teacher  will  infringe  it 
without  grave  necessity.  But,  supposing  the  children  begin  to 
shew  signs  of  weariness  in  the  course  of  the  legitimate  lesson 


SECURING    ATTENTION.  25 


of  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty-five  minutes — to  yawn  and  fidget — 
let  the  teacher  at  once  give  them  some  change  of  posture. 

How  to  cultivate  the  Power  of  Concentration, — 

One  of  the  greatest  boons  a  teacher  can  bestow  on  her  pupils 
is  to  develop  their  power  of  devoting  close  and  persistent 
attention  to  one  thing.  Now,  there  is  no  surer  way  of  training 
this  faculty  in  young  people  than  by  first  calling  into  play 
the  ability  to  observe,  according  to  the  methods  recommended 
by  Froebel.  The  following  well-recognised  plans  will  be  found 
of  great  use  in  exercising  and  testing  attention  in  its  early 
stages : — 

(a)  Hold  up  two  objects  of  diversified  character,  let  them  be 
inspected  by  the  pupils  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  put  aside, 
and  described  by  them.  The  same  plan  may  be  pursued  with 
three  or  more  things,  according  to  the  age  and  abilities  of  the 
children. 

(b)  Hold  up  a  picture  containing  much  detail  and  many 
iigures,  and  then  proceed  as  in  (a). 

(c)  Tell  children  to  name  the  shops,  houses,  etc.,  in  a 
certain  street. 

(d)  Several  different  substances  may  be  put  before  the 
children  or  into  their  hands,  and,  when  removed,  described 
as  to  properties,  size,  shape,  and  so  on. 

(e)  Pupils  may  be  taught  to  judge  of  lengths  and  distances 
by  comparing  them  with  some  known  length,  say,  one  foot  or 
one  yard. 

(f)  A  more  advanced  exercise  is  that  of  comparing  objects 
that  are  somewhat  alike.  After  both  have  been  exhibited,  they 
should  be  laid  aside,  and  the  pupils  then  required  to  mention 
the  points  of  similarity  and  contrast. 

In  all  such  exercises,  the  teacher  must  guard  against  con- 
fusion, and  keep  in  view  the  age,  defects,  and  abilities  of  the 
scholars.  One  great  advantage  of  the  above  method  of  training 
is  that  it  enables  the  teacher  to  lead  the  children  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  e.g.,  by  their  being  led  to  describe  a 


2b  SECURING    ATTENTION. 


cat,  a  fair  idea  of  a  tiger  may  be  imparted;  a  known  stream  or 
pond  can  be  utilized  to  give  a  notion  of  a  large  river  or  lake. 
Whenever  children  are  allowed  to  give  the  result  of  their 
observations  in  their  own  words,  correctness  of  language  as 
well  as  connection  of  thought  must  be  insisted  on. 

These  simple  methods  of  training  children  to  use  their 
faculties  must  be  persevered  with,  the  teacher  bearing  in  mind 
that  no  sooner  does  observation  become  easy  to  a  child,  than 
attention  becomes  easy.  We  will  now  say  a  few  words  on 
what  the  teacher  may  require  and  expect  from  the  elder  children 
in  the  way  of  attention  : — 

Continuous  and  Concentrated  Attention— Gene • 

ral  Counsels. — As  a  rule  it  may  be  said  that  before  attention 
can  be  relied  on,  the  interest  of  the  pupils  must  be  aroused  by 
legitimate  means — such  as,  curiosity  about  the  subject  of  the 
lesson,  love  of  learning,  the  pleasure  of  being  employed,  or 
desire  for  the  approval  of  the  teacher.  She  must  endeavour 
to  awaken  a  longing  for  information,  to  excite  wonder,  and 
kindle  delight,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  lesson  given* 
The  children  ought  to  feel  pleasure  in  exercising  their  minds> 
their  hands,  eyes,  and  so  on,  and  wull  do  so,  if  influenced  by  her 
earnestness,  thoroughness,  and  ability. 

At  the  same  time,  the  teacher  must  remember  that  all  children 
are  not  equally  attracted  by  the  same  subject,  and  that  she 
will  have  occasionally  to  point  out  the  great  value  of  certain 
lessons  and  special  branches  of  study. 

Another  matter  to  bear  in  mind  is,  that  the  fruits  of  attention 
are  not  always  immediately  evident.  Some  children  require  a 
little  quiet  reflection  on  a  lesson  before  the  result  is  apparent. 
When  they  are  learning  to  observe,  let  a  teacher  beware  of  too- 
much  talk,  as  it  sometimes  distracts  the  attention  of  children 
instead  of  fixing  it. 

Teachers  must  not  be  discouraged  by  apparent 
failure  to  secure  Attention.— A  young  teacher  is  often 


SECURING   ATTENTION.  27 


daunted  to  find  that  her  class  begins  to  shew  signs  of  weariness- 
before  the  lesson  is  half  over — carefully  given  though  that 
lesson  may  be.  She  must,  however,  remember  that  what  is- 
clear  and  interesting  to  herself  is  not  always  so  to  her  pupils. 
It  will  be  well,  by  questioning  them,  to  ascertain  whether  they 
are  following  her,  or  she  may  shew  them  some  picture  or  other 
illustration,  or  tell  them  a  short  anecdote,  to  kindle  their 
interest.  Often  she  will  discover  that  her  scholars  have 
missed  the  whole  gist  of  the  subject,  which  must  then  be  re- 
capitulated in  plainer,  simpler  language. 

Some  other  Obstacles  to  Attention. — In  the  children 

themselves  are  to  be  found,  at  times,  certain  difficulties  which 
prevent  their  paying  attention.  Weakness  of  body  and  mind 
— often  caused,  in  very  poor  schools,  by  semi-starvation — 
sluggishness  of  temperament,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  over 
quickness  and  vivacity  ;  presumption  and  conceit  are  hind- 
rances which  a  teacher  must  be  prepared  to  encounter  and 
overcome  to  the  best  of  her  ability. 

Distracting  sights  and  sounds,  in  so  far  as  they  are  under 
the  control  of  the  teacher,  should  be  almost  nil.  She  wilt 
either  take  care  to  reduce  them  to  a  minimum,  or  will  so  engage 
the  attention  of  the  pupils  that  they  will  not  notice  them. 
Then — even  as  fatigue  of  body  is  remedied  by  drill  or  change 
of  position — so  fatigue  of  mind  may  be  relieved  by  change  of 
subject,  or  by  a  minute's  total  cessation  from  study.  The 
attention  even  of  the  best-disposed  children  may  also  be 
weakened  by  physical  discomfort,  arising  from  a  cramped 
position,  cold,  heat,  or  ill-ventilated  rooms. 

The  Advantag^es  of  well-trained  powers  of  observation 
and  attention  are  very  obvious.  The  habit  of  unswerving 
attention,  when  once  acquired  as  a  part  of  one's  mental  equip- 
ment, braces  the  mind  for  its  work  in  after  life.  In  all  calHngs. 
quickness  of  apprehension,  which  is  one  of  the  results  of  the 
ability  to  concentrate  the  attention,  will  enable  a  workman  at 


28  SECURING   ATTENTION. 


'Once  to  receive  and  understand  orders,  and  execute  them  as 
required  without  the  risk  of  mistake.  Scientific  men,  artists, 
inventors,  etc.,  owe  their  renown,  in  the  main,  to  their  capaci- 
ties for  observation  of  and  attention  to  details.  The  attentive 
mind  can  also  find  wide  fields  of  innocent  enjoyment  and  re- 
creation, which  are  wholly  or  partially  closed  to  the  inattentive. 
In  visiting  museums  and  other  exhibitions,  or  buildings  of 
interest,  and  in  travels  by  sea  and  land,  it  is  the  attentive 
mind  that  receives  the  most  benefit. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  earnest  teacher  must  not  only  consider 
what  lessons  to  give  and  the  best  means  of  imparting  them, 
l)ut  must  also  study  how  to  make  the  most  of  her  pupils* 
attentive  and  retentive  faculties. 

Other  methods  of  quickening  Concentration  of 
Mind. — Besides  the  methods  already  suggested  for  culti- 
v^ating  the  habit  of  observation  in  the  young,  there  are  several 
others  which  may  be  used,  from  time  to  time,  to  accustom 
joung  people  to  work  quickly,  and  concentrate  their  attention 
on  one  thing  at  a  time.  Such  means  must  be  used  with 
■caution ;  there  is  a  danger  of  straining  the  minds  of  earnest 
workers  if  they  are  made  to  exercise  this  faculty  of  close  con- 
centration too  often,  or  stimulated  to  undue  mental  activity  : 

(a)  An  inattentive  child  may  be  asked  to  take  a  single  object 
and  write  down  all  he  can  discover  about  it  in  a  given  time — 
say  fifteen  minutes — viz. :  its  colour,  shape,  size,  uses,  etc. 

(6)  The  teacher  may  dictate  a  sentence  slowly,  and  re- 
quire the  scholars  to  tell  her  how  many  letters  it  contains. 

{c)  Or,  she  may  read  a  passage  from  a  book,  and  ask 
them  to  keep  count  of  the  number  of  words. 

(d)  Again,  a  long  sentence  may  be  read  once,  and  the 
class  told  to  write  as  much  as  they  remember  of  it. 

(e)  Another  way  of  quickening  interest  is  to  arrange  school 
matches  in  various  subjects — geography,  mental  and  written 
arithmetic,  spelHng.  Anything  of  the  kind — spelling-bees, 
theme-writing — should  be  seized  upon  with  eagerness  by  the 


SECURING   ATTENTION.  29 


teacher,  as  a  means  of  stimulating  honest  effort,  and  relieving, 
the  monotony  of  school-life.  There  are  afternoons  in  mid- 
winter, when  all  without  is  bleakness,  dullness,  and  fog.  Then. 
is  the  time  for  the  teacher  to  throw  off  her  own  lassitude,  and 
introduce  some  cheerful  variety  in  the  ordinary  work  which  will 
chase  away  dreariness,  and  make  the  school  appear,  to  its 
inmates,  the  one  bright  spot  in  creation.  No  inspector  would 
object  to  the  lesson  marked  on  the  time-table  being  set  aside 
(for  so  good  a  reason  as  this)  in  favour  of  an  hour's  musical 
drill  or  class-singing  ;  provided  it  were  only  done  occasionally. 

Time  Tests  in  Arithmetic, — These  are  exceedingly 
helpful,  and  should  frequently  be  used  for  a  few  minutes  at 
once.  Twice  a  day  will  not  be  too  often,  where  the  pupils  have 
contracted  habits  of  listless  indifference.  They  should  be 
confined  to  the  simple  rules  and  such  work  as  is  easy  to  the 
pupils.  A  sheet  of  sums  may  be  exhibited,  and  the  child  whO' 
works  the  greater  number  correctly,  in  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,, 
rewarded  by  having  his  name  written  up,  or  in  some  other 
way.  "Continuous  addition  or  multiplication"  can  also  be 
utilised  for  this  purpose. 

Allow  Children  only  just  enough  Time  for  their 
"Work. — The  pernicious  habit  of  dawdHng  through  sums, 
copies,  composition,  and  memory  work,  has  to  answer  for  much 
chronic  inattention.  The  whole  class  should  not  be  kept- 
waiting  for  lazy,  inattentive  children. 

The  Teacher's  own  Estimate  of  the  Importance 
of  Education  the  best  Stimulus. — After  all  has  been 
said  and  done,  it  will  be  found  that  unless  the  teacher  infuses 
into  her  scholars  a  conviction  of  the  deep  importance  of  their 
studies,  and  the  necessity  of  making  the  most  of  the  short 
time  allowed  for  them,  her  efforts  will  not  bear  much  fruit. 

There  is,  about  some  schools,  an  atmosphere  of  briskness, 
business-like  energy,  and  cheerful  progress,  that  cannot  fail  tO' 


30  SECURING   ATTENTION. 


•strike  even  a  mere  stranger.  Where  such  happy  conditions 
■exist,  it  will  be  found  that  the  teacher  has  managed  to  imbue 
the  pupils  with  her  own  spirit  of  indomitable  energy;  indeed, 
it  sometimes  happens,  that — so  great  is  the  fire  of  zeal 
kindled — they  have  even  to  be  restrained  lest  they  injure 
themselves  by  over-much  application.  In  such  cases,  one 
great  object  of  education  has  been  attained,  by  the  arousing  of 
a  desire  for  knowledge ;  and  consequently  the  scholars,  on  ^ 
quitting  school,  will  probably  become  self-educators  and  use  \ 
the  information  already  gained  as  a  stepping-stone  to  some- 
thing higher  and  better.  The  same  excellent  results  may 
confidently  be  expected  whenever  the  mind,  by  true  teachings 
is  kept  in  the  full  tide  of  healthy  action. 

If  we  contrast  with  such  fortunate  scholars  the  jaded,  in- 
different aspect  of  the  children  whose  teacher  takes  things 
■easy  {i.e.,  loiters  along,  dragging  her  unwilling  pupils  after  her) 
during  nine  months  of  the  year,  trusting  to  prepare,  by  hard 
cram,  during  the  last  three  months,  for  the  dreaded  Exam- 
ination, we  shall  understand  a  little  why  some  teachers  have 
bright,  orderly  schools,  and  intelligent,  attentive  pupils,  while 
others  bring  both  themselves,  their  school,  and  education 
itself  into  contempt. 


3' 


CHAPTER   IV. 


Rewards   and   Punishments. 

IT  is  a  question  of  grave  moment  how  far  it  is  desirable  to 
put  before  children  other  reasons  for  well-doing,  than  the 
general,  broad  principle  of  doing  right  for  right's  sake. 

There  are  to  be  found  stern  moralists  who  contend  that,  in 
school  management,  no  rewards  whatever  are  admissible,  on 
the  ground  that  they  tend  to  make  children  act  from  secondary 
motives.  But  surely  to  argue  thus  is  to  shew  ignorance  both 
•of  human  nature  and  the  principles  of  true  government. 

It  must  be  remembered  that,  in  children's  minds,  the  abstract 
notion  of  what  is  right  is  in  a  very  elementary  state.  It  re- 
quires some  time  to  arouse  the  higher  faculties  of  their  nature. 
Therefore,  rewards  and  punishments  are  even  more  needful 
in  the  management  of  a  school  than  in  that  of  an  army  or  a 
State.  They  serve  to  promote  discipline,  and  act  as  a  stimulus 
to  virtue  and  exertion. 

Has  not  the  system  the  highest  of  all  sanctions  ? 

Knowing  the  weakness  of  our  mortal  nature,  the  great  Creator 
stimulates  and  encourages  us  with  the  hope  of  reward,  and 
deters  us  from  evil  by  the  fear  of  punishment ;  and  surely  these 
aids  to  virtue  are  more  needed  by  children  than  by  those  who 
are  of  mature  age  and  experience. 

Plainly,  we  cannot  afford  to  dispense  with  such  powerful 
incentives  to  industry  and  meritorious  conduct,  in  that  little 
world  which  we  call  The  School. 

Emulation. — Even  emulation  is  not  to  be  discounten- 
anced, so  long  as  it  is  fostered  in  a  right  spirit,  and  brought  to 
bear  on  the  scholars  with  discrimination  and  prudence.     It  is 


32  REWARDS   AND    PUNISHMENTS. 

quite  certain  that  the  principle  of  emulation  is  a  natural  one^ 
both  with  young  and  old ;  and  yet  we  find  that  the  advisability 
of  its  employment  in  the  working  of  a  school,  is  a  question 
much  disputed.  This  no  doubt  arises,  partly,  from  the  different 
sense  in  which  the  word  may  be  understood. 

The  emulation  which  a  teacher  may  safely  encourage  is  that 
which  produces  a  genuine  desire  for  progress,  for  honourable 
distinction  and  mention,  and  for  the  good  repute  of  the  school ; 
— such  emulation,  in  short,  as  leads  the  child  "to  forget  those 
things  which  are  behind,  and  reach  forth  to  those  things  that 
are  before."  The  kind  of  emulation  to  be  discouraged  is  that 
which  creates  a  fondness  for  self-glorification,  and  an  envious 
desire  to  rise  by  the  downfall  of  others. 

S.  Paul  speaks  of  the  former,  when  he  says:  "If  by  any 
means  I  may  provoke  to  emulation  them  which  are  of  my  fleshy 
and  might  save  some  of  them."  To  the  latter  he  alludes  when 
he  tells  us  to  avoid,  among  other  vices,  "Hatred,  variance,. 
etmdation,  wrath,  strife." 

The  teacher  will  find  that  some  pupils  like  being  above 
their  school-mates  merely  from  a  love  of  pre-eminence,  and 
that  too  when  they  attain  their  position,  not  through  their 
own  exertions  or  deserts,  but  because  others  from  some  cause, 
have  fallen  to  the  rear.  They  feel  as  much  pleasure  in 
another's  failure  as  they  do  in  their  own  success.  It  is  such 
selfish  rivalry  as  this  that  teachers  must  set  their  face  against, 
otherwise  it  may  lead,  in  after  years,  to  unscrupulous  ambition. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  child  that  is  imbued  with  the  true  spirit 
of  emulation,  will  rejoice  in  the  success  of  others — even  though 
it  may  result  in  his  own  discomfiture — and  will  evince  neither 
petty  jealousy  nor  a  spirit  of  disparagement. 

It  may  be  further  remarked,  that  emulation  is  the  foundation 
on  which  all  games  of  skill  and  athletic  sports  rest.  And 
is  it  not  universally  considered  that  such  competition  is 
not  only  a  powerful  stimulus  to  exertion,  but  that  it  teaches 
young  people  to  give  and  take,  to  bear  defeat  good  humouredly, 
and  to  feel  generous  pleasure  in  the  success  of  another  ? 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  33 

There  ought  to  be  such  an  esprit-de-corps  in  a  good  school,  as 
would  lead  the  unsuccessful  aspirant  to  rejoice  in  the  honour 
awarded  to  the  talent  and  diligence  of  a  companion,  and  to  feel 
that  he  himself  gains  a  sort  of  reflected  credit  therefrom. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  notice  that  it  now  and  then 
happens  that  the  children  in  a  class  are  very  unequally 
matched  as  to  ability  and  outward  advantages.  The  result 
of  this  is  that  all  the  emulation  is  left  to  a  few  of  the  more 
-clever  pupils — the  others  shewing  signs  of  indifference  to  their 
work.  It  is  then  that  the  able  teacher  must  find  some 
means  that  will  have  the  effect  of  restoring  the  general  interest 
of  the  class  in  their  studies. 

Prudent   use  of  Rewards  and  Punishments.— 

The  necessity  of  rewards  and  punishments  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  school  being  admitted,  it  will  be  wise  here  to  consider 
a  few  safeguards  for  their  due  administration. 

They  ought  not  to  be  assigned  only  for  intellectual  pro- 
l^ress  or  talent.  The  moral  improvement  of  children  is  even 
of  more  importance  than  their  progress  in  learning,  and  should 
meet  with  equal  if  not  greater  encouragement,  while  deviations 
from  the  standard  of  right  should  be  visited  with  heavier 
penalties.  The  child  who  is  reverent,  truthful,  attentive  and 
high-principled,  should  stand  higher  in  the  teacher's  estimation 
than  one  who  merely  answers  questions  well,  or  takes  a  good 
position  at  an  examination.  Any  particular  virtue  in  which  a 
school  is  strikingly  deficient,  may  often  be  encouraged  by 
offering  well-considered  incentives  to  that  virtue. 

Some  children  being  more  sensitive  than  others,  it  follows 
that  punishments  must  be  graduated  as  to  severity,  when 
possible.  A  pupil  who  has  a  hard,  coarse  nature,  will  care  very 
little  for  a  penalty  that  would  almost  crush  the  spirit  of 
one  with  a  delicate  organization.  The  general  rule,  then, 
will  be — Punish  only  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  correct  a 
fault,  so  far  as  this  can  be  done  without  any  appearance  of 
injustice. 


34  REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 


Rewards  and  punishments  should  be  used  only  when  appeals 
to  higher  motives  fail,  and  then  not  too  lavishly,  or  they  will 
lose  their  force.  They  must  never  be  given  without  the 
proper  accompaniment  of  dignity  and  seriousness.  The  more 
impressive  the  manner  in  which  they  are  administered,  the 
more  beneficial  will  they  be. 

The  Teacher  must  shew  that  she  attaches  Im- 
portance to  her  System  of  Eewards,  etc. — Before 
entering  upon  the  subject  of  rewards  and  punishments  in 
detail,  it  will  be  well  to  make  a  few  observations  upon  a  side 
of  the  question  which  deeply  affects  it.  Teachers  are  apt  tO' 
forget  that  the  success  of  any  system  employed,  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  the  amount  of  importance  with  which 
they  themselves  invest  it.  Before  adopting  any  plan  for 
exciting  emulation,  let  them  seriously  count  the  cost — the 
time,  the  trouble,  the  exactitude,  the  perseverance  that  will 
be  needed  to  carry  it  through.  No  matter  how  excellent 
a  scheme  may  be,  it  is  worse  than  useless  to  commence 
unless  there  is  the  firm  determination  to  continue. 

Frequent  Changes  Unadvisable. — Furthermore,  we 
would  say  to  teachers — "  Beware  of  frequent  changes  here^ 
Having  once  deliberately  settled  upon  your  plan  of  action,, 
keep  to  it — at  least,  until  you  see  some  very  urgent  reason 
for  introducing  alterations."  We  must  not  forget  that  the 
traditions  of  a  school  count  for  a  great  deal.  A  system  which 
has  stood  the  test  of  time  is  more  likely  to  be  respected  than 
one  which  is  more  or  less  of  an  experiment. 

In  nothing  do  desultory  teachers  shew  their  true  colours 
more  plainly,  than  in  methods  for  arousing  interest  in  matters 
of  this  kind. 

There  are  schoolmasters  and  schoolmistresses  who  would 
set  a  fresh  scheme  afloat  every  few  weeks,  and  bring  each 
successively  into  contempt  by  their  lazy,  half-hearted  way  of 
carrying   it    into    effect.      Let   them   rest   assured   that   the 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  35 


children  will  attach  the  same  degree  of  importance  to  any 
method  of  rewards  or  privileges  that  they  do  themselves.  If 
they  value  and  respect  their  system,  the  pupils  will  do  so 
likewise.  If  they  come  to  regard  it  with  indifference,  the  same 
spirit  will  soon  be  diffused  throughout  the  school. 

Rewards. — The  great  point  to  remember  here  is  that  the 
intrinsic  value  of  a  reward  should  count  for  next  to  nothing. 
Indeed,  the  less  costly  the  prize,  the  more  of  honour  may  attach 
to  its  attainment,  if  the  teacher  so  determine. 

Among  such  rewards  we  may  mention — Taking  places  in  class 
according  to  the  order  of  merit.  This  mode  of  stimulating  zeal  and 
industry  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  does  not  receive  the  attention 
it  deserves,  in  elementary  education.  Its  general  adoption  might 
be  made  a  powerful  lever  for  raising  the  tone  of  many  schools. 
But  whether  this  be  considered  feasible  or  not,  it  could  at 
least  be  used  with  excellent  effect  at  weekly  or  fortnightly 
examinations.  And  the  names^  at  regular  intervals,  might  be 
posted  up  in  their  order,  for  all  comers  to  see. 

Teachers  might  also  allow  the  marks  obtained  by  a  child  at 
periodical  examinations  to  determine  his  standing  place  in  the 
class.  When  the  scholars  take  places  for  each  lesson  not  given 
while  they  are  in  the  desks,  it  is  considered  a  good  plan  to  allow 
children  to  occupy,  at  the  beginning  of  a  lesson,  the  same  posi- 
tion which  they  had  attained  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  one. 
A  place  should  be  lost  for  late  attendance  or  for  absence. 

This  is,  doubtless,  an  excellent  means  of  keeping  the  scholars 
on  the  alert,  and  proving  to  themselves  how  they  stand.  When 
taking  places  in  class,  a  child  should  not  usually  go  up,  or  down, 
more  than  one  place  at  a  time. 

Marks  or  Checks. — A  system  of  marks  or  checks  (or, 
for  quite  young  children,  reward  cards)  tends  greatly  to 
diminish  the  need  of  punishment,  and  in  other  ways  may  be 
productive  of  most  beneficial  results.  If  this  plan  is  used 
earnestly  and  perseveringly,  it  is  sometimes  enough  in  itself 


36  REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 


to  maintain  perfect  order  and  attention,  and  secure  the  rapid 
advance  of  the  pupils.  It  would  be  well  if  each  teacher  were 
allowed  a  very  few  honour  checks,  which  she  could  give  to  such 
children  as  distinguished  themselves  in  the  examinations. 
These  honour  checks  might  qualify  those  who  receive  them, 
to  compete  for  certain  prizes  at  the  end  of  the  school  year. 

Competitions. — Time-tests  are  dealt  with  in  another  part 
of  this  book.  But,  to  the  able  teacher,  other  competitions  will 
suggest  themselves,  which — if  judiciously  introduced — will 
be  found  of  value. 

Certificates  and  Testimonials  of  Merit. — These 
can  be  so  managed  as  to  incorporate  the  advantages  of  all  other 
plans  for  rewarding  good  conduct.  They  afford  every  scholar, 
even  those  of  mediocre  ability,  an  opportunity  of  having  his 
efforts  at  self-improvement  properly  estimated  ;  whereas  prizes 
can  only  be  gained  by  the  few.  The  various  degrees  of  merit 
attained  by  the  pupils  can  be  accurately  recorded  on  certificates 
by  the  discerning  teacher. 

.  These  may  also  be  so  worked  as  to  cause  a  child  to  reflect 
on  the  preparation  needed  for  his  future  career  in  life ; 
since  a  well-earned  and  discriminating  testimonial,  on  leaving 
school,  would  doubtless  be  of  great  service  to  children  of  either 
sex  in  obtaining  employment.  Moreover,  it  would  act  as  an 
inducement  to  preserve  the  good  character  therein  recorded. 

By  means  of  these  certificates,  it  will  also  be  found  possible 
to  reach  the  parents  of  pupils,  to  induce  them  to  send  their 
children  more  regularly,  and  allow  them  greater  opportunity 
for  home  study.  In  many  schools,  it  is  customary  to  distribute 
certificates  after  the  annual  examination ;  but  why  should 
not  such  testimonials  of  merit  be  given  to  all  who  earn  them, 
every  quarter,  or  even  month  ? 

Honourable  Mention  in  Reports.  —  Quarterly  or 
half-yearly  reports  of  each  standard  may  be  sent  to  the  mana- 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  37 

gers,  with  honourable  mention  of  the  scholars  who  have  even 
distinguislied  themselves  by  good  conduct,  punctual  attend- 
ance, and  application  to  study.  A  child  who  has  been  thus 
commended  a  certain  number  of  times,  may  become  eligible  for 
some  extra  treat  or  privilege.  Zealous  managers  can  do  good 
service,  by  merely  making  a  formal  appointment  to  read  out 
the  names  so  honoured,  with  appropriate  ceremony,  before  the 
whole  school. 

Inscription  of  Names  on  Honour  Lists. — In  some 
conspicuous  position  in  the  school,  a  framed  tablet  may  be 
hung,  on  which  to  inscribe  the  names  of  those  who  deserve 
commendation.  In  some  large  schools,  three  tablets  are  kept — 
one  for  those  who  distinguish  themselves  by  their  attainments, 
another  for  any  whose  conduct  is  commendable,  while  a  third 
records  the  names  of  all  who  have  made  the  complete  number 
of  attendances. 

Decorations, — The  success  of  this  kind  of  distinction 
depends  entirely  on  the  tact  of  the  teacher.  By  her  own 
ingenuity  and  power  of  management,  she  may  render  the 
wearing  of  such  a  badge,  an  honour  to  be  more  coveted  than 
gold ;  or  she  may,  on  the  contrary,  cause  it  to  be  slighted 
and  despised. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  with  these — as  well  as  with 
all  other — honorary  rewards,  not  to  make  them  too  common. 
They  should  be  bestowed  with  care  and  judgment,  and  worn 
only  for  a  limited  time. 

If  a  pupil,  wearing  a  badge  of  honour,  should  be  guilty  of 
some  neglect  of  duty,  he  should — as  a  general  rule — be 
exempted  from  punishment,  for  a  single  offence.  Should 
the  fault  however  be  a  serious  one,  he  must  as  a  punishment 
be  deprived  of  the  decoration  ;  for  it  would  not  be  fitting  that 
one  wearing  a  badge  of  merit  should  undergo  correction. 

A  golden  rule  for  teachers  is — '*  Let  all  such  (listinctions  be 
reserved  for  the  few — the  very  best." 


3^  REWARDS   AND    PUNISHMENTS. 

Praise. — Praise  is,  in  itself,  no  small  recompense,  if  it  is 
employed  in  the  right  way.  Yet,  like  all  rewards,  it  may  simply 
minister  to  vanity  and  selfishness,  if  unwisely  used. 

The  bestowal  of  praise  has  its  advantages  and  its  dangers. 
It  may  always  be  given  privately  to  those  who  deserve  it, 
but  it  is  rarely  safe  to  praise  a  pupil  before  his  companions. 
Some  children  are  very  easily  spoiled  by  any  approach  to 
public  commendation.  Even  if  deserved,  it  is  apt  to  become, 
ere  long,  the  sole  object  of  the  pupil's  aspirations,  and  thus 
engenders  conceit,  vanity,  and  ambition  of  the  baser  kind. 
General  commendation  of  a  whole  class  or  school  is,  when 
deserved,  for  the  most  part  both  a  safe  and  pleasant  pro- 
ceeding, but  it  must  be  given  with  dignity,  and  couched 
in  appropriate  terms. 

Praise  should  be  bestowed  for  the  conscientious  use  of 
opportunities  and  abilities,  rather  than  for  sharpness  or  talent. 
It  should  never  be  dealt  out  as  a  reward  for  performing 
ordinary  duties  which  are  binding  upon  all. 

Teachers  should  take  care  to  praise  the  right  child  at  the 
right  time,  otherwise  he  may  be  discouraged,  and  think  that 
his  efforts  to  excel  are  unnoticed.  A  long  speech  is  not 
needed ;  a  single  word,  or  even  glance,  is  often  sufficient. 
It  is  unfair,  as  well  as  unwise,  for  teachers  to  be  always  ready 
to  frown,  and  punish  misdemeanours,  while  they  withhold 
approval  of  a  child's  well-meant  exertions  whether  successful 
or  not.  Every  child,  even  the  very  worst,  deserves  praise 
sometimes,  just  as  the  very  best  is  sure,  now  and  then,  to 
deserve  censure. 

To  sum  up — praise,  whether  given  privately  or  before  the 
whole  class  or  school,  whether  for  pains-taking  diligence,  for 
high  principle,  or  success  at  lessons,  should  be  administered 
sparingly,  and  never  without  due  thought.  We  may  learn 
a  lesson  here  from  a  celebrated  French  artist  who  was  so 
sparing  of  his  commendation,  that  his  pupils  came  to  prize 
his  ^' Pas  mal"  more  highly  than  the  most  elaborate  en- 
comiums from  any  other  master. 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  39 


Prizes. — Prize-giving  in  large  schools  is  open  to  many 
objections.  When  such  rewards  are  held  out  to  school- 
children, it  is  essential  that  they  should  be  attainable  by  all, 
and  that  they  should  be  a  recognition  of  honourable  effort 
rather  than  of  talent.  These  conditions  are  violated  when 
prizes  are  given  merely  for  attainments.  In  such  cases,  only 
a  few  can  receive  them,  therefore  only  a  few  are  stimulated. 
If  all  the  children  in  a  school  had  equal  abilities  and  the  same 
external  opportunities  and  influences,  it  might  then  be  wise  to 
give  each  one  a  prize  if  he  reached  a  certain  standard  of 
perfection  in  a  given  time. 

Besides  the  difficulty  there  is  of  so  awarding  prizes  as 
to  do  justice  to  all,  it  has  been  found  that  some  children  cease 
to  be  diligent  directly  the  prize  is  withdraw^n,  thus  shewing 
plainly  that  the  stimulus  was  an  unwholesome  one.  Children 
have  often  been  known  to  remark,  that  such-and-such  a 
schoolmate  is  good  and  diligent  "  because  he  is  trying  for 
the  prize."  Parents,  too,  sometimes  receive  a  wrong  bias 
from  prize-giving.  They  may  either  feel  a  foolish  pride 
in  the  clever  child  who  wins  the  reward,  or  shew  anger 
towards  the  one  who  loses  it.  Again,  if  in  their  estimation 
their  own  child  is  the  most  meritorious,  they  often  complain 
loudly  of  the  teacher,  and  announce  that  favouritism  has  been 
shown. 

Prizes  for  regular  attendance  are  productive  only  of  good. 
A  general  distribution  of  presents,  also,  to  all  except  those  in 
disgrace,  brightens  up  the  children.  And  a  small  prize  given 
to  the  winner  of  some  competition,  is  at  times  much  thought 
of — even  if  it  be  only  a  bunch  of  flowers,  an  orange,  or  a 
pocket  pen. 

Punishments. — Correction  being  a  repressive  and  coer- 
cive measure,  it  becomes  lawful  only  after  other  means 
have  failed.  The  idea  that  one  prmcipal  part  of  the  manage- 
ment of  children  consists  in  perpetual  punishment,  is  a  common 
one  with  young  people,  and  often  forms  part  of  the  code  of 


40  •      REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 

inexperienced  teachers— even  though  they  would  shrink  from 
acknowledging  it.  Such  raw  instructors  of  youth  soon  alienate 
the  love  and  esteem  of  their  pupils  by  incessant  reprimands 
and  correction.  In  much  the  same  way,  an  ignorant  lad  may 
sometimes  be  seen  beating  an  unfortunate  horse,  which  an 
experienced  driver  would  manage  with  a  word  of  direction  or 
encouragement. 

Let  punishment,  then,  be  regarded  as  a  last  resource,  and 
one  to  be  greatly  deprecated,  and  let  the  teacher  learn  to  rule 
her  little  kingdom  by  other  means.  If  the  children  are 
supplied  with  attractive  occupation,  and  are  kept  in  order  by 
steady,  continuous,  and  consistent  discipline,  if  the  first  slight 
fault,  the  first  breach  of  the  school-rules  is  noticed  and  visited 
(in  some  way)  on  the  offender,  while  fair  competition  is 
stimulated  by  a  judicious  system  of  rewards  and  privileges, 
there  will  not  be  much  call  for  a  penal  code,  and  coercive 
measures  will  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  quite  the  exception. 

It  is  not  denied  that  there  are  certain  faults  which  ought  to 
be  severely  dealt  with — such  as  cruelty,  deceit,  bad  language 
of  any  kind,  or  revolt  against  authority ;  but  minor  defects 
ought  to  disappear  under  the  influence  of  a  wise  and  firm 
government. 

What  Punishments  are  not  Allowable. — To  begin 
with,  there  should  be  in  every  school  a  strict  rule,  prohibiting 
the  teachers  from  hitting,  or  even  touching  a  child — whether 
with  the  hand,  or  a  pointer,  ruler,  book,  or  anything  else. 
Even  to  touch  a  child  by  way  of  caress  is  undesirable — how 
much  more  unbefitting  a  teacher  is  it  to  pull  or  push  children 
into  their  places  when  drilling  or  otherwise,  to  box  their  ears, 
pull  their  hair,  rap  their  knuckles,  etc. 

Corporal  Punishment. — A  very  great  deal  is  said  and 
written  in  the  present  day  for  and  against  corporal  punish- 
ment. It  is,  after  expulsion,  the  severest  measure  that  can  be 
had  recourse  to  in  the  correction  of  a  school-child.     Takinsr 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  4I 

for  granted  the  tacitly-assumed  right  of  a  teacher  to  inflict 
bodily  chastisement,  it  becomes  imperative  to  consider  its 
expediency,  and  the  offences  for  which  it  should  be  resorted  to. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  corporal  punishment  both 
degrades  the  culprit  and  lowers  the  teacher  in  the  esteem  of 
the  pupils.  These  results  do  not  necessarily  follow,  provided 
that  the  punishment  is  inflicted  by  the  proper  person,  in  a 
just  and  temperate  spirit,  and  that  the  child  is  made  to  see 
that  other  corrective  measures  have  failed  to  reduce  him  to 
submission. 

If  teachers  shew  their  pupils  that  they  have  only  their 
interest  at  heart,  if  the  milder  modes  of  disciphne  are  discreetly 
carried  out,  and  the  better  feelings  of  the  scholars  appealed  to- 
in  flagrant  cases  of  wrong-doing,  they  will  always  so  far  carry 
the  school  with  them,  that  they  may  safely  use  extreme 
measures  in  extreme  cases.  Teachers  must  remember  that 
in  the  use  of  any  penalty,  the  frequency  of  its  occurrence 
lessens  its  force,  and  this  is  especially  so  with  corporal 
punishment. 

The  offences  generally  acknowledged  as  deserving  bodily 
chastisement  are  dishonesty,  falsehood,  cruelty,  immoral 
conduct  and  speech,  profanity,  open  defiance  of  authority,, 
and  persistent  disobedience.  Small  offences  become  greats 
and  have  an  immoral  taint  in  them,  when  they  are  of  very 
frequent  occurrence.  In  the  case  of  children  who  seem  to 
be  the  pests  and  bane  of  the  school,  corporal  punishment, 
as  a  corrective  measure  is  often  better  than  expulsion,  for 
the  last-named  proceeding  pains  and  humiliates  the  parents^ 
and  affects  the  whole  career  of  the  pupil  by  branding  him 
with  a  kind  of  infamy. 

Censure. — Since  praise  is  reckoned  among  the  rewards 
and  incentives  to  be  used  in  school  government,  so  censure 
must  be  placed  among  its  punishments  and  deterrents.  The 
same  precautions  must  be  observed  in  the  use  of  blame  as  in 
the  bestowal  of  praise.     As  praise  should  not  deteriorate  into 


42  REWARDS   AND    PUNISHMENTS. 

flattery  or  coaxing,  so  blame  must  not  pass  into  scolding, 
perpetual  fault-finding,  or  ridicule.  A  rebuke  when  adminis- 
tered, must,  on  the  teacher's  part,  be  equally  free  from  levity 
and  bitterness. 

The  reproof  which  comes  from  a  beloved  and  esteemed 
teacher  will  always  prove  a  powerful  mode  of  checking  wrong- 
doing. Individual  private  remonstrance  is  often  more  effective 
than  open  rebuke,  because  the  pupil  sees  that  by  such  a  course 
his  feelings  are  taken  into  consideration.  Private  expostula- 
tion also,  to  a  great  extent,  deprives  the  culprit  of  the 
unwise  support  of  his  schoolmates.  When  the  welfare  of  a 
whole  class  or  school  is  concerned,  the  censure  must  of  course 
be  a  public  one. 

Threats  should  seldom  be  held  out,  but  a  pupil  may  be 
warningly  spoken  to  or  looked  at,  when  he  seems  on  the  brink 
of  wrong-doing.  If  he  still  persists,  he  may  be  taken  apart 
and  remonstrated  with  ;  and,  after  this,  a  whispered  word — or 
look — of  reminder  will  often  be  a  help  to  the  child  in 
striving  against  his  perverse,  headstrong  nature. 

Oh,  let  all  believe,  that  love  will  devise  many  an  ingenious 
plan  for  bringing  a  scholar  to  submission  before  resorting  to 
extreme  measures  ;  yet  the  self-same  love  will  not  shrink  from 
inflicting  merited  chastisement,  when  it  is  for  the  true  good 
of  the  child,  or  necessary  to  maintain  the  high  tone  of  the 
school. 

Punishment  of  Public  Faults. — Such  a  fault  as 
setting  a  teacher  at  defiance  must  be  visited  with  swift 
retribution,  lest  the  evil  contagion  spread  throughout  the 
school.  Nevertheless,  teachers  should  avoid  anything  like 
public  humiliation  of  the  elder  scholars — unless  they  have 
been  guilty  of  some  grave  sin  of  cruelty,  meanness,  etc., 
which  leaves  no  alternative.  They  must  remember  that — as 
boys  and  girls  grow  older— it  is  a  mistake  to  deprive  them  of 
that  feeling  of  self-respect  which  will  save  them  from  so  many 
youthful  indiscretions. 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  43 


When  an  older  pupil  refuses  to  obey,  in  the  presence  of 
the  rest  of  the  class,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  look  at  him 
sternly,  and  ask—"  What  do  you  mean  by  this  ?  "  and  then 
'add — "  Remain  after  school  to  speak  to  me."  A  kind  but 
serious  expostulation  in  private,  dictated  by  the  teacher's 
evident  desire  for  the  pupil's  good,  will  often  win  him,  and 
may  be  the  turning  point  in  his  life.  But  the  teacher  must 
appeal  to  him  on  religious  grounds,  point  out  the  true  remedy 
for  his  fault,  and  shew  him  where  alone  strength  to  over- 
<:ome  evil  can  be  found.  Then  the  words  must  be  Iwpeful. 
Those  who  have  not  had  large  experience  of  young  people, 
have  little  idea  how  easily  they  are  led  to  despair  of  them- 
selves. This  despair  lies  at  the  root  of  much  of  the  reck- 
lessness they  exhibit,  and  is  sometimes  fearfully  aggravated 
by  the  scolding  type  of  teacher — who  constantly  assures  the 
child  that  he  "  will  come  to  no  good,"  or  remarks,  in  his 
hearing,  that  "  He  has  not  one  redeeming  point." 

Teachers  should  Refrain  from  Open  Complaints. 

— General  complaints  of  the  school  or  the  conduct  of  the 
children,  made  before  the  latter,  cannot  fail  to  render  teachers 
unpopular.  Teachers  should  not  even  refer,  in  the  hearing 
of  the  scholars,  to  their  poverty,  ragged  condition,  or  other 
circumstances.  On  the  contrary,  let  all  who  have  charge  of 
children  invariably  look  on  the  bright  side,  and  if  they  say 
anything  on  the  subject  of  the  school  to  outsiders,  let  it  be  by 
way  of  cheerful  commendation.  If  they  make  any  remark 
about  teaching,  let  it  be  to  declare  what  delightful  and  inter- 
esting work  it  is,  when  looked  at  in  its  true  light,  and 
imdertaken  from  high  motives.  Unless  they  can  edify  and 
encourage  their  hearers  by  letting  them  see  a  bright,  happy 
labourer  in  the  fertile  field  of  education,  they  can  at  least  be 
silent. 

Sending  a  Pupil  to  the  Head-Teacher.— This  is  a 

form  of  punishment  which  the  assistant  teachers  should  not 


44  REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 

employ,  unless  absolutely  needful.  It  is  far  better  to  battle 
with  the  difficulty  themselves,  if  possible  ;  their  class  will 
respect  them  all  the  more.  Still,  discipline  must  be  maintained 
at  any  cost,  and  the  pupils  made  aware  that  the  younger 
teachers  are  not  afraid  to  fulfil  their  duty. 

Vague  and  general  accusations  to  the  head-teacher  of  the 
standard  they  are  responsible  for,  must  be  always  avoided 
by  the  assistants.  To  rail  at  a  whole  class,  is  a  kind  of 
injustice  that  is  certain  to  be  resented  by  the  children.  Some 
teachers  have  also  an  exasperating,  fretful  way  of  fault-finding, 
which  is  never  productive  of  the  slightest  good,  and  which  is 
either  a  vent  for  their  own  ill-humour,  or  a  confession  of  their 
own  incompetence. 

Justice,  above  all,  is  Necessary. — Before  all,  it  is 
needful  that  any  penalty  allotted  shall  he  strictly  just.  It 
is  sometimes  painful  to  inflict  punishment  upon  a  child  that  is 
habitually  docile  ;  but  if  it  is  deserved,  no  difference  ought  to 
be  made.  Justice  demands  that  the  correction  shall  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  offence — though  rather  less  than  greater. 

A  teacher  must  guard  very  carefully  against  hasty  accusa- 
tion. Never  should  she  tax  any  child  with  dishonesty  or 
falsehood,  unless  she  has  the  clearest  proof  of  his  guilt. 
Supposing  an  article  is  actually  found  in  a  child's  possession, 
it  does  not  alivays  follow  that  he  is  a  thief ;  and,  in  addition  to 
the  injury  which  injustice  inflicts  on  the  children  themselves, 
nothing  more  surely  irritates  parents  and  wounds  their  feelings, 
than  the  bringing  of  grave  charges  against  their  offspring. 

How  to  Punish. — Having  now  warned  teachers  of 
possible  mistakes  in  administering  reproof  or  chastisement,  we 
will  suggest  a  few  modes  which  may  be  effectual  both  in 
deterring  a  pupil  from  repeating  an  offence  and  in  hindering 
others  from  following  the  bad  example. 

The  best  form  of  punishment  undoubtedly  consists  in 
deprivation   of  some    valued    privilege.     Thus — as  we   said 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  45 

above — the  loss  of  a  mark  or  a  check  ought  to  suffice  for 
ordinary  occasions  ;  the  deprivation  of  a  badge  or  the  erasing 
of  a  name  from  an  honour-hst,  for  offences  of  more  serious 
import.  We  will  suggest  a  few  other  penalties  which  ex- 
perience has  proved  to  be  efficacious. 

A  Place  of  Disgrace. — To  have  a  place  in  the  school- 
room to  which  an  idea  of  disgrace  attaches,  sometimes  answers 
well.  A  table  and  chair  in  the  corner  of  the  schoolroom 
will  suffice  for  this.  The  delinquent  takes  his  place  there,  and 
follows  all  the  lessons  done  by  the  rest  of  the  class,  but  is 
forbidden  either  to  speak,  or  to  take  his  turn  in  reading  and 
reciting.  This  punishment,  like  others,  should  not  be  made 
too  common ;  nor  should  a  child  be  subject  to  it  for  longer 
than  one  day. 

Writing  an  Apology. — A  pupil  may  be  required  to 
remain  behind,  while  the  rest  of  the  class  go  to  the  play- 
ground, and  write  a  formal  apology  to  the  teacher ;  or  make 
a  neat  copy  of  something  chosen  for  the  purpose.  The  plan 
of  requiring  children  to  write  out  the  same  word  fifty  or  a 
hundred  times,  cannot  be  recommended,  as  it  encourages 
careless  scribbling. 

No  Punishment  should  cut  off  a  Child  from 
Study. — All  penalties  should  be  sternly  interdicted  which 
interfere  with  the  course  of  study,  even  in  the  case  of  a 
single  pupil.  No  child  should  be  put  to  stand  on  a  form,  etc. 
It  is  a  manifest  absurdity  to  place  a  scholar  where  he  can 
watch  all  that  is  going  on,  and  yet  is  not  obliged  to  work. 
This  is  exactly  what  an  idle  child  enjoys,  and  if  some  thought- 
less, ignorant  teacher  turns  him  out  of  the  room,  his  triumph 
is  complete ! 

An  older  scholar  may,  however,  be  made  to  feel  the  conse- 
quences of  a  fault  deeply,  by  being  forbidden,  for  a  whole  day, 
to  take  his  turn  in  answering,  reading,  or  reciting.    It  is  a  sign 


46  REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 


of  a  good,  well-managed  school,  when  this  prohibition  is  felt 
to  be  a  real  depri  vation. 

No  child  should  ever  be  locked  up  anywhere  alone.  The 
consequences  of  this  may  be  very  serious. 

Keeping  In. — This  is  not  a  punishment  to  be  recom- 
mended, though  it  seems,  at  times,  unavoidable.  It  is  hard 
on  the  teachers  when  t  hey  are  already  exhausted  with  hours 
of  trying  work,  and  it  tends  to  destroy  the  true  idea  of  scJwol 
in  the  children's  minds.  A  child  can  hardly  feel  a  warm  love 
for  a  place  in  which  he  is  forcibly  detained  by  way  of  punish- 
ment. It  is,  however,  allowable  to  keep  an  idle,  troublesome 
child  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  after  the  school  has  been 
dismissed,  that  he  may  complete  some  neglected  task,  or' 
write  a  suitable  apology  or  imposition.  This  also  affords 
opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  address  a  few  words  of  re- 
monstrance to  him  alone. 

Black  Book. — A  strong  deterrent  may  be  found  in  a 
"Black  Book,"  or  "Roll  of  Dishonour."  In  this  book  the 
names  of  pupils  persistently  refractory  may  be  entered,  to  be 
shewn  to  the  managers,  or  others,  at  their  next  visit.  If  the 
entering  of  names  in  the  Black  Book  is  accompanied  by  a  certain 
amount  of  ceremony,  it  impresses  children  greatly.  They 
should  always  be  told  that  the  entry  will  be,  to  a  certain 
degree,  cancelled  upon  their  shewing  proofs  of  amendment. 

Degrading  a  Child  to  a  Lower  Standard. — This 
is  not  permissible,  though  it  is  sometimes  done.  In  a  school 
under  Government  inspection  it  may  almost  be  termed  illegal ; 
for  though  children  can  be  now  classified  according  to  the 
teacher's  discretion,  and  moved  from  one  standard  to 
another,  it  is  on  the  clear  understanding  that  their  education 
will  benefit  thereby.  No  idea  of  disgrace  should  therefore 
attach  to  the  change.  Besides,  it  is  selfish  in  teachers  to 
desire  to  pass  on  unsatisfactory  scholars  to  others. 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  47 

Enlisting  the  Public  Feeling  of  the  School.— For 

any  very  disgraceful  fault,  especially  for  a  misdemeanour 
calculated  to  reflect  discredit  on  the  whole  school,  it  some- 
times answers  for  a  teacher  to  confront  the  offender  formally 
with  his  companions,  and  enlist  public  feeling  against  the 
offence — asking  them  to  shew  their  sense  of  the  wrong-doing 
by  shunning  his  society  till  he  shews  sorrow  for  the  past  and 
signs  of  doing  better  in  future. 

Children  not  to  be  Punished  at  the  request  of 
Parents. — It  is  the  office  of  parents  to  chastise  their  children 
far  more  than  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  do  so,  and  they 
ought  not  to  be  helped  to  shirk  the  responsibility.  Neither^ 
on  the  other  hand,  must  teachers  send  messages  or  notes  tO' 
the  parents,  requesting  them  to  correct  their  children  for 
school  delinquencies.  This  would  make  the  school  exceedingly 
unpopular,  and  be  unfair  to  the  father  or  mother. 

In  all  communications  held  with  a  parent,  the  teacher 
should  say  the  best  she  possibly  can  of  the  child,  dwelling 
upon  the  good  points  of  his  character,  and  praising  such  talents 
as  he  may  possess.  However  cognizant  parents  may  be  of 
their  children's  faults,  it  angers  them  to  be  told  of  them  by 
other  people. 

At  the  same  time,  a  head-teacher— whose  duty  it  is  to 
interview  the  parents — should  seize  any  favourable  opportunity 
to  enlist  their  co-operation  in  the  great  work  of  education,  by 
reminding  them  how  much  more  powerful  is  the  influence  of 
the  home  than  the  school ;  how  precious  is  the  charge  that  has 
been  entrusted  to  them  by  Almighty  God ;  and  how  needful  it 
is  to  uproot  faults,  and  implant  good  habits  in  early  youth. 

Additional  Suggestions.  —  To  sum  up:— Let  all 
teachers  make  it  their  aim,  by  wise  management  and  firm, 
consistent  discipline,  to  render  the  necessity  for  punishment 
a  rare  and  exceptional  occurrence. 

If  they  are  compelled  to  punish,  let  them  take  care  that  any 


48  REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 

penalty  they  inflict  is — (i)  just ;  (2)  charitable  ;  (3)  moderate* 
and  (4)  prudent,  that  is,  such  as  will  benefit  the  child,  tend  to 
maintain  the  high  character  of  the  school,  and  be  followed 
by  no  unpleasant  consequences. 

They  will  find  that,  if  they  strictly  observe  the  following 
rules,  the  need  for  punishment  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Some  of  the  points  have  been  already  insisted  upon  in  the 
course  of  this  volume,  but  they  are  so  important  that,  even  at 
the  risk  of  being  wearisome,  we  repeat  them  here : 

{a. )  Keep  strict  guard  over  yourself — your  manner,  temper,  etc.  Be  punc- 
tually at.  your  post,  and  shew  yourself  invariably  cheerful,  assiduous, 
firm,  just,  and  moderate  in  all  things.  Avoid  all  conversation  apart 
from  your  duties  with  anyone  whatever,  during  school  hours. 

{d.)  Take  up  a  good  position,  from  which  you  can  supervise  M^  w/io/e 
class.     Let  the  pupils  feel  that  your  eye  commands  them. 

{c.)  Arrange  the  children  with  care  and  judgment — putting  the  most 
studious  at  the  back,  and  those  who  are  inattentive  nearer  to 
your  desk ;  never  allow  talkers  to  sit  together ;  separate  friends  if 
necessary. 

<(d.)  Provide  against  interruption.  Discourage  all  unnecessary  coming 
into  the  room,  messages,  etc.  Have  everything  made  ready  in 
advance ;  not  three  or  four  pens  missing,  broken  nibs,  thick  ink, 
readers  mixed.  Each  bit  of  slovenliness  is  a  separate  trap  for  disorder 
and  bad  behaviour. 

{e.")  Never  leave  the  children  alone  ;  nor  yield  to  the  temptation  of 
writing  letters,  or  otherwise  employing  yourself  during  school  time. 
Your  time  belongs  exclusively  to  the  children  and  the  school  duiing 
these  short  hours. 

</.)  Appoint  monitors  for  each  class  or  division  of  a  class ;  train  them  to 
distribute  and  collect,  quietly  and  quickly,  all  that  has  to  be  given 
out.  Have  this  done  while  the  children  are  drilling  between  each 
lesson.  This  saves  time,  and  prevents  those  little  unoccupied 
intervals,  which  are  loop-holes  for  disorder, 

Xg.")  Try  to  infuse  such  a  spirit  of  life  and  vigour  into  the  whole  school, 
that  each  child  shall  be  interested  in  his  work,  and  sensible  of 
making  steady  advance. 


REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS. 


49 


(//)  Arrange  that  a  reliable  monitor  shall  ring  the  bell,  announcing  changes 
of  lessons.  Let  such  changes  be  made  instantly,  as  a  matter  ofcourscy 
and  effected  as  quietly  as  possible. 

(?)  Allow  no  one  in  the  school  to  receive  a  private  present  from  pupils 
or  their  relations,  upon  any  pretext  whatever ;  even  gifts  of  flowers 
or  fruit  should  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  room. 

(y )  Ascertain  that  maps,  charts,  objects,  pictures,  drill  instruments,  music 
and  all  other  apparatus  required  are  placed  ready  for  use ;  and  spare 
no  pains  to  provide  that  all  lessons  shall  be  so  well  prepared  for, 
that  they  may  be  given  in  an  interesting  and  masterly  manner. 

Should  these  hints  be  carejiilly  acted  upon,  it  will  he  found  that  there 
will  he  small  need  for  either  repressive  or  deterrent  meastires.^ 


50 


CHAPTER  V. 
Attention  to  Details. 

IF  a  school  is  to  be  efficient  and  successful,  there  must  be 
unremitting  care  about  small  things. 

In  reading  the  lives  of  great  men,  we  find  that  their 
success  turned  very  much  upon  attention  to  details ;  and 
nowhere  is  this  attention  more  needed  than  in  school- 
management. 

It  is  not  enough  to  start  well.  Many  a  teacher,  on  first 
taking  charge,  attends  to  every  minute  point ;  perfection  marks 
her  arrangements  down  to  the  merest  trifle.  But,  by  little  and 
little,  she  and  her  school  deteriorate.  Her  excellent  rules  and 
contrivances  fall,  one  by  one,  into  disuse,  till  at  last  the  trail 
of  laziness  and'  slovenliness  is  over  all,  and  the  undertaking 
that  once  looked  so  fair  and  promising,  becomes  a  miserable 
failure. 

Oh !  how  can  we  find  words  wherewith  to  impress  upon  all 
teachers  the  wisdom  of  not  "  despising  small  things  ?  ''  Alas, 
the  evil  is  often  deep-seated  !  The  dirty  schoolroom,  the  dusty 
apparatus  and  cabinets,  disorderly  cupboards,  corroded  pens, 
empty  ink-wells,  tattered  books,  untidy  pupils,  and  the  spirit 
of  muddle  which  prevails  all  round,  shew  that  the  moth  and 
rust  of  indolence  and  low  principle  have  invaded  the  teacher's 
own  heart,  and  must  be  got  rid  of  before  there  can  be  any 
marked  improvement. 

A  good  effect  may  sometimes  be  produced  by  persuading 
such  a  teacher  to  pay  a  visit  to  a  well-ordered  school,  where 
the  motto  seems  to  be  "  Perfection  in  all  things,"  and  where 
teachers  and  scholars  are  working  with  one  consent  up  to  this 
high  standard.     But  what  is  really  wanted  is  the  infusion  of 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  51 


that  pure,  high,  religious  principle,  which  should  underlie 
■every  detail  of  our  daily  lives,  leading  us  "  Whether  we  eat  or 
•drink,  or  whatsoever  we  do,  to  do  all  to  the  glory  of  God." 

Some  of  the  minor  points,  which  it  is  most  desirable  should 
have  unremitting  attention,  will  now  be  touched  upon. 


Desk  Drill,  etc. 

Wherever  children  are  taught  in  classes,  there  are  a  number 
of  necessary  movements  and  changes,  which  ought  to  be  made 
according  to  a  well-planned  code  of  signals.  Inspectors,  when 
judging  of  the  merit  of  a  school,  rightly  take  into  consideration 
the  quietness  and  precision  with  which  changes  are  effected, 
books  passed  and  collected,  or  scholars  marched  to  and  from 
playground  or  hall.  And,  truly,  the  manner  in  which  such 
operations  are  carried  out,  affords  a  fair  index  of  the  discipline 
that  prevails. 

In  the  management  of  such  details  there  should  be  one 
unvarying  system  throughout  a  school.  For  instance,  the  pre- 
liminaries to  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  lessons,  and  the 
mode  of  entering  and  leaving  the  class-rooms,  should  be  alike 
in  every  standard. 

Suggested  Methods. — The  following  methods  are 
suggested,  as  having  already  proved  of  practical  use : — 

For  passing  books,  pens,  etc.,  give  the  child  sitting  at  the 
end  of  each  row  sufficient  for  that  row.  He  takes  one  and 
passes  on  the  rest,  the  next  child  does  the  same,  and  so  on  to 
the  last. 

Books  are  returned  in  much  the  same  manner :  the  monitor 
stands  at  the  end  of  each  row  and  gives  the  word  '*  Pass 
books."  The  child  furthest  from  him  passes  his  book  to  No.  2, 
who  places  it  on  the  top  of  his  own,  and  passes  both  ta 
No.  3.  When  all  are  passed,  the  monitor  counts  them  to  see 
that  he  has  the  correct  number,  and  then  puts  them  away. 

Desk  drill. — This  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  desk  used.     A 


52  ATTENTION   TO   DETAILS. 

good  series  of  movements  for  leaving  the  ordinary  dual  desksy 
is  as  follows :: — 

One (Lay  hold  of  desk.) 

Two (Turn  back  flap.) 

7:^r^^...  (Stand.) 
Four. ...  (Out  of  desks.) 

Children  require  to  be  continually  drilled  to  obey  signals  irr 
a  ready  and  exact  manner.  Even  to  sit  down  and  stand  up 
quickly  and  easily  needs  practice ;  while  to  bring  children  out 
for  reading  lessons,  or  to  change  classes  when  one  set  of  desks 
has  to  answer  for  two  sets  of  children,  is  still  more  difficult. 

Marching. — Simple  as  this  exercise  may  appear,  it  cannot 
be  done  well  unless  the  children  have  a  fair  amount  of  practice. 
It  is  by  no  means  an  easy  thing  to  teach  a  number  of  children 
to  march  well — that  is,  with  heads  erect,  shoulders  thrown. 
back,  line  kept  even,  steps  taken  briskly  and  in  time.  When 
there  is  no  drill-hall,  and  the  class-rooms  are  crowded,  there 
is  a  temptation  to  neglect  marching,  but  this  temptation 
should  not  be  yielded  to.  A  teacher  of  resource  will  contrive- 
some  way  of  giving  the  children  this  important  exercise :  for 
it  is  important  that  young  people  should  be  taught  to  walk 
properly,  and  be  cured  of  poking,  stooping,  and  shambling 
habits.  They  should  not  be  trained  either  to  stamp  or  tO' 
walk  on  tip-toe — this  last  produces  a  hobbling  gait — but  to- 
plant  the  whole  foot  well  upon  the  ground,  turn  out  toes,, 
and  tread  lightly  and  firmly. 

When  it  is  practicable,  and  especially  when  children  march 
into  (or  back  from)  the  play-ground  together,  they  should  do  so< 
in  time  to  a  march  played  on  the  piano,  or  a  song  sung  by 
themselves. 

A  light,  firm  step  is  not  acquired  at  once ;  indeed  it  needs- 
a  little  time  and  patience  to  make  sure  that  the  pupils  really 
obey  the  elementary  direction,  "  Left,  right ;  left,  right." 

Personal  Neatness  must  be  exacted.— Children 
ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  come  to  school  with  dirty  hands. 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  53 


and  faces,  torn  pinafores  and  ragged  frocks.  The  parents  wiH 
form  a  far  higher  opinion  of  the  school  if  they  find  that  dirt 
.and  rags  are  not  tolerated.  A  mother  may  be  poor,  but  she 
•can,  at  least,  wash  and  mend  her  children's  clothes. 

In  some  districts,  a  few  moments'  inspection  of  the  children, 
.as  they  march  past  the  teacher  at  the  commencement  of 
morning  and  afternoon  school,  is  advisable.  All  who  have 
dirty  hands  or  faces  should  be  sent  to  wash  them,  and  incur 
some  penalty.  Those  with  ragged  and  soiled  clothes  should 
be  spoken  to  alone  (for  it  may  not  be  their  own  fault),  or  the 
parents  should  be  visited  and  remonstrated  with  on  the 
subject. 

Manners. 

Teachers  should  do  their  best  to  inculcate  the  laws  of  good 
breeding.  If  such  instruction  is  begun  when  the  children  are 
quite  young,  it  will  be  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course.  It  is 
often  said  of  a  certain  school,  "You  can  tell  the  children 
brought  up  there,  years  after  they  have  left,  by  their  courteous 
bearing."  Yes,  but  why  should  not  this  be  one  result  of  all 
education  ? 

Some  people  may  object — "  Qh,  surely  teachers  have  enough 
to  do  without  teaching  manners — except  so  far  as  the  children's 
behaviour  in  school  is  concerned  !  "  But  this  is  not  quite 
the  right  view  to  take  of  the  subject.  Children  require 
definite  instruction  in  courtesy,  and,  unless  this  training  ,is 
given  in  school,  many  of  them  will  never  have  it  at  all,  but 
will  grow  up  without  that  advantage  which  a  pleasing  address 
undoubtedly  confers.  Perhaps  we  shall  see  more  plainly 
the  necessity  for  educating  children  to  be  courteous,  if  we 
reflect  that  the  pohtcness  to  which  we  refer  is  not  the  artificial 
veneer  with  which  civilized  nations  seek  to  conceal  their 
natural  selfish  roughness,  and  which  is  often  assumed  for 
purposes  of  gain  or  pohcy.  No ;  the  good  manners  we 
\>ould   teach    rest   on    the   fundamental   principles   of ;  strict 


54  ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS. 

honour,  forbearance,  generosity,  and  Christian  love.  It  is  the 
virtue  to  which  the  Apostle  alluded  when  he  bade  all — 
"  Be  pitiful,  be  courteous,"  "In  honour  prefer  one  another." 

**  Manners  are  the  shadows  of  great  virtues,"  says  Whately ; 
and  we  may  well  add — manners  should  be  the  outward 
evidence  of  the  ''Charity  that  is  hind;"  for  courtesy  really 
means — ''  Doing  the  kindest  thing  in  the  kindest  manner." 

Manners  must  be  taught  by  Example. — Children 
are  naturally  imitators,  and  it  is  therefore  ot  real  moment  that 
teachers  should,  in  their  own  persons,  exemplify  true  courtesy. 
Besides,  the  rule  which  should  guide  us  all,  in  this  matter,  is — 
"  The  higher  the  position,  the  greater  the  politeness." 

The  whole  bearing  and  manner  of  one  who  leads  others 
should  be  above  criticism.  Teachers  should  especially  avoid — 
awkwardness  in  posture,  and  lounging  habits ;  carelessness 
in  dress;  and  everything  that  approaches  affectation.  Let 
teachers  be  themselves^  and  guard  against  all  that  is  opposed 
to  a  frank,  natural  manner.  Let  them,  moreover,  remember 
the  dignity  that  attaches  to  their  office,  and  do  nothing  to 
lower  that  high  ideal  which  people  instinctively  form  of  what 
they  ought  to  be.  This  will  keep  them  from  frivoHty,  levity,, 
and  over-familiarity  with  anyone — even  with  their  pupils. 

Let  them  eschew  unpunctuality,  gossiping  with  fellow- 
teachers  or  others,  and  all  waste  of  the  time  which  ought  to 
be  so  prized.  Teachers  whose  habit  it  is  to  walk  (or  ride) 
to  school  each  morning,  reading  some  trashy  periodical,  or 
indulging  in  idle  and  thoughtless  talk,  shew — we  may  assert 
without  affecting  puritanical  strictness — a  sorry  appreciation 
of  their  high  calling,  and  of  the  importance  of  those  duties  in 
which  they  are  about  to  engage.  Let  them  remember,  too,  how 
much  depends  upon  their  own  fidelity  to  the  order  of  the 
various  exercises.     They  cannot  he  too  punctual. 

Many  teachers  have  little  idea  how  closely  their  deport- 
ment is  watched  by  the  elder  boys  and  girls  of  the  school,  and 
how  just  are   their   strictures   when  they   fall   short  of  the 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  55 

standard  the  pupils  have  formed  of  what  their  teacher's  bearing 
should  be. 

Manners   must   be   taught   by  Practice.— Such 

practice  in  politeness  as  school-life  affords,  should  be  diligently 
taken  advantage  of.  Children  should  be  taught  to  bow  and 
say  "  Good  morning  "  or  "  Good  afternoon,"  when  entering 
and  leaving  school-.  The  elder  boys  should  be  trained  to  lift 
their  cap  in  the  street,  when  they  meet  ladies  they  know  or 
anyone  to  whom  they  owe  respect.* 

The  scholars  should  be  encouraged  to  proffer  their  teachers 
little  incidental  services — such  as  picking  up  anything  acci- 
dentally dropped,  handing  chalk  or  eraser,  offering  a  chair, 
helping  to  put  things  away  at  the  end  of  school,  carrying 
parcels  to  the  tram  or  station,  and  so  forth. 

They  should  also  be  trained  to  receive  properly  those  who 
visit  the  school.  The  child  who  answers  the  bell  or  opens  the 
door  should  politely  invite  the  visitors  to  enter,  apprise  the 
head-teacher  of  their  arrival,  find  them  seats,  and  shew  them 
any  other  attention  the  occasion  may  seem  to  demand. 

Manners    must    be    taught    by  Precept.— It  is 

obvious  that  the  schoolroom  alone  will  not  furnish  sufficient 
illustrations  of  the  usages  of  good  society,  and  we  therefore 
strongly  recommend  teachers  to  draw  up  a  series  of  lessons 
on  courteous  behaviour,  and  give  them  regularly  in  the  school. 
Very  beneficial  ''object  lessons"  might  be  put  together  upon 
"  Manners  at  home,  in  the  street,  in  public  conveyances,  and 
at  places  of  entertainment ;  also  on  the  treatment  of  the  aged, 
the  very  young,  the  deformed  and  afflicted,  strangers, 
and  so  on." 

•Opinions  differ  on  the  way  boys  should  be  trained  to  salute,  and  our  ideas  may,  perhaps, 
be  considered  too  progressive  when  we  say  that  we  think  it  is  time  the  peculiar  salaam 
taught  in  many  schools  should  become  a  relic  of  the  past.  But  we  would  beg  our  readers 
to  take  a  common-sense  view  of  the  case,  and  ask  themselves  whether  it  is  not  better  to  teach, 
at  least  the  elder  boys,  a  mode  of  salutation  which  they  will  use  through  life.  Who  can  blame 
the  big  country  lad  if  he  now  slinks  past  the  Rector's  wife  or  his  late  schoolmaster,  because 
it  is  repulsive  to  him  to  tug  his  forelock  or  describe  a  half-circle  with  his  hand  1 


56  ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS. 

Children  do  not  realise  instinctively  that  it  is  rude  to  turn  and 
stare  at  a  person  in  the  street,  to  jostle  people  off.  the  pave- 
ment, to  push  first  into  a  tram-car,  or  to  obstruct  the  pathway. 
They  need'  to  he  tpid  that  they  should  not  enter  a  private  room 
without  knocking,  nor  look  over  a  person's  shoulder  when  he 
is  writing  a  letter,  nor  burst  out  laughing  when  a  man  has  his 
hat  blown  off,  or  when  he  slips  down  in  the  street. 

_  The  Principles  underlying  Good  Manners  must 
be  Taught   to   Elder  .  Children.— Pupils  who  are  old 

enough  to  understand,  must  have  good  and  high  motives  set 
before  them,  for  the  self-restraint  which  we  ask  them  to 
exercise.  They  must  be  shewn  that  courteous  bearing  impHes 
much  more  than  outside  show,  and  that  even  what  seems  a 
mere  form  is  often  grounded,  upon  kindness  and  common  sense. 
..It  should  be  represented  to  them  that  they  would  not  like, 
;when  they  grow  up,  to  be  thought  ignorant  of  what  the  best 
and  wisest  people  have  agreed  to  practice ;  on  the  contrary 
they  would  naturally  wish  so  to  act  that  they  might  be  classed 
with  tljem.  Not  that  they  will  have  to  be  always  thinl^ing 
about  how  to  behave,  when  they  are  older ;  that  would  be  most 
undesirable.  But  those  who  take  the  trouble  to  learn  and 
practice  the  customs  of  civilised  society  when  young,  will 
observe  them  unconsciously  when  older — for  they  will  have 
become  a  fixed  habit. 

Respect  for  all  in  Authority  must  be  Inculcated. 

— It  is  during  their  school-days  that  children  should  learn  that 
, respect  for  all  who  are  in  authority,  which  will  make  them 
loyal  and  dutiful  citizens  in  the  future.  The  simple  lesson 
that  lawful  authority  comes  from  God,  and  that,  on  this 
account,  respect  and  obedience  are  due  to  it,  is  what  the 
teacher  has  to  enlarge  on.  It  is  manifestly  unsuitable  to  imbue 
children's  minds  with  party  spirit,  or  to  bring  before  them 
purely  political  topics.  Neither  is  it  the  place  of  an  educa- 
^tionist  to  express  decided  opinions  as  to  the  respective  value 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  57 


of  different  forms  of  government,  or  to  extol  one  above 
another.  Even  if  it  were  possible  to  decide  such  a  difficult 
question,  it  would  not  be  a  fitting  subject  for  school.  To  instruct 
children  that  the  powers  that  he  must  be  obeyed,  and  that  we, 
as  Christians,  should  not  be  swayed  by  party  considerations 
Avhen  a  principle  is  at  stake,  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher. 

Children  should  be  taught  respect  for  the  Pro- 
perty of  other  People. — ^They  cannot  learn  too  early  to 
respect  the  just  claims  of  others.  They  must  be  frequently 
admonished  as  to  their  behaviour  out  of  doors,  and  strictly 
forbidden  to  throv/  stones,  to  tread  upon  the  steps  of  the 
neighbouring  houses,  to  break  the  plants  or  shrubs,  to  shout, 
loiter  about,  or  in  short  make  themselves  obnoxious  in  any 
way.  They  should  be  taught  that  their  duty  towards  their 
neighbour,  no  less  than  the  honour  of  the  school,  requires  that 
they  comport  themselves  as  Christians  and  civilised  beings, 
shewing  regard  for  the  feelings  and  property  of  others.  Street 
monitors  should  be  appointed  to  see  that  all  scholars  disperse 
quickly  and  quietly — one  or  more  of  the  teachers  always 
standing  near  the  school  door,  to  note  the  children's  behaviour, 
iind  exert  proper  control  over  them. 


School   Apparatus. 

Teachers  cannot  work  without  proper  tools.  If  a  school  is 
to  reach  the  required  standard  of  efficiency,  there  must  be  a 
liberal  supply  of  desks,  black-boards,  maps,  books,  manuscript 
paper,  and  slates.  Of  course,  strict  economy  shoukl  prevail, 
and  no  waste  of  any'  kirid  be  tolerated.  But  economy  is 
not  parsimony,  and  teachers  who  feel  that  (through  lack  of 
apparatus)  they  can  do  justice  neither  to  the  children  nor 
to  their  own  teaching,  should  respectfully  lay  their  needs  before 
the  school-managers  again  and  again,  until  the  deficiency 
is  made  goc5d. 


58  ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS. 

They  should  also  point  out  when  the  walls  and  ceilings  are 
discoloured  through  dirt,  or  the  woodwork  needs  a  coat  of 
varnish ;  and  ask  that  the  summer  holidays  may  be  utilized 
for  a  thorough  cleansing  and  re-furbishing  of  the  premises- 
Should  the  arrangements  for  cleaning  the  school  and  attending 
to  small  repairs  not  be  satisfactory,  it  would  be  the  teachers* 
duty  to  represent  the  matter  to  the  Committee. 

A  Teacher  has  much  in  her  own  Hands. — Even 
supposing  that  managers  are  generous  in  providing  all  that  is 
wanted  for  the  good  conduct  of  a  school,  there  is  sometimes 
much  to  be  desired  in  the  way  the  apparatus  and  the  rooms 
are  kept,  and  for  this  the  teacher  alone  is  responsible. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  proverb  holds  good — *'  Where  there's 
a  will  there's  a  way."  The  teacher  who  is  determined  to  have 
a  bright,  well-ordered  room,  will  contrive  to  have  it. 

It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  a  very  fair  idea  of  the 
efficiency  of  a  school  may  be  formed  by  examining  into  the 
condition  of  the  books,  slates,  maps,  work-materials,  pens, 
pencils,  etc.  There  are  details  connected  with  all  the  articles 
in  use,  which  require  ceaseless  attention,  and  each  teacher 
will  do  well  to  put  herself,  periodically,  through  some  such 
examination  as  the  following  : — 

Are  books  carefully  handled  and  neatly  put  away  ? 

Are  maps  always  restored  to  their  proper  place  as  soon  as 
done  with  ? 

What  provision  do  I  make  for  the  cleaning  of  slates  ;  and 
are  they  ever  put  away  in  a  dirty  state  ? 

In  what  condition  are  the  ink-wells  ?  Are  they  always  well- 
filled,  and  in  their  right  place  ? 

What  about  pencils  and  pens  ?  Am  I  careful  that  the 
former  are  of  proper  length  and  well-sharpened,  and  that  there 
is  a  sufficiency  of  pen-holders  ?  Are  the  nibs  invariably  wiped 
when  the  writing  lesson  is  over,  and  new  ones  substituted 
when  necessary  ? 

Am  I  careful  about  manuscript-paper  and  copy-books  ?    Do 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  59 

I  see  that  the  children  keep  them  clean,  fill  up  all  the  spaces, 
never  tear  or  deface  them,  and  only  use  what  is  absolutely 
necessary  ? 

Ink-wells  should  not  be  washed,  but  the  tops  cleaned 
with  a  piece  of  sponge.  If  the  inside  needs  cleansing,  this 
should  be  done  with  a  painter's  small  brush  dipped  in  vinegar,, 
but  it  will  usually  be  found  sufficient  to  refill  them. 

Pieces  of  rough  stone  for  sharpening  slate-pencils  should  be 
fixed  in  convenient  places. 

Pens  should  be  of  good  quality,  and  children  should  be 
trained  not  to  strike  the  bottom  of  the  ink-well  when  dipping 
them  in,  since  this  quickly  ruins  the  nibs.  They  must,  more- 
over, be  supplied  with  pen-wipers,  and  forbidden  to  wipe 
pens  on  their  clothes. 

In  girls'  schools,  needlework  materials  may  become  a  fruitful 
source  of  waste,  unless  the  mistress  is  vigilant  to  avert  it. 
At  the  end  of  a  lesson,  needles  should  be  collected.  Cotton 
should  be  first  wound  round  a  large  piece  of  cardboard,  and 
then  cut  in  uniform  lengths,  before  being  given  to  the  children. 
Thimbles  and  scissors  must  always  be  counted  before  being 
returned  to  the  work  cupboard.  In  large  sewing-classes,  two 
of  the  elder  girls  ought  to  take  turns  in  giving  round  cotton 
and  other  necessaries. 

These  things  may  be  regarded  as  trifles  by  some.  But  let 
us  not  forget  that — "  Trifles  make  perfection,  and  perfection 
is  no  trifle."  It  is  attention  to  such  small  matters  which  often 
marks  the  difference  between  a  good  school  and  a  bad  school. 
To  those  who  have  a  high  conception  of  the  duties  of  their 
vocation,  such  things  have  an  importance  far  beyond  their  in- 
trinsic value. 


Illustrations. 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  descant  upon  school   apparatus 
in  general,  but  we  have  a  few  words  to  say  about  a  matter 


6o  ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS. 


of  detail,  which — though  often  overlooked — seems  to  us  de 
serving  of  careful  consideration.     We  refer  to  that  illustrative 
apparatus,  with  which  every  school  must  be  provided  if  the 
children  are  even  faintly  to  apprehend  what  their  teachers 
are  talking  about.  ,  ■    ' 

It  seems  impossible  that  too  much  can  be  said  about  the 
•expediency  of  using  objects  and  pictures,  with  a  view  to 
giving  children  correct  and  vivid  impressions  of  what  they 
are  taught.  It  is  recorded  of  the  late  Mr.  Thring,  that  he  said 
he  should  like  to  teach  even  algebra -by  means  of  pictures  !  In 
principle,  he  was  perfectly  right.  What  a  child  sees — he 
comprehends — he  remembers. 

Blackboard  Drawing. — A  great  deal  is  now  written 
about  this  kind  of  illustration  that  is  ■  unpractical.  People 
speak  as  though  every  teacher  ought  to  be  able  to  sketch 
from  memaory — and  in  about  five  or  ten  minutes — animals, 
trees,  buildings,  the  human  skeleton,  machinery,  etc.,  in  a 
masterly  manner.  There  are  not  fifty  teachers  in  England 
who  could  do  anything  approaching  this,  for  it  would  need 
artistic  genius  of  a  very  high  order.  Nor  would  the  benefit  be 
great,  after  all. 

At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  confessed  that  practical  black- 
board illustration  is  much  neglected.  There  are  few  lessons 
which  might  not  be  improved  by  a  rational  use  of  the  chalk 
and  board.  How  often  teachers  speak  of  the  veining  of  a 
leaf,  the  shape  of  a  root  or  flower,  the  form  of  an  arch  or  gable, 
or  of  the  square,  oblong  and  triangle,  without  attempting  to 
make  their  meaning  clear  by  a  few  swiftly-drawn  lines.  Why 
is  this?  Wfi  believe  there  is,  at  times,  no  better  reason 
forthcoming,  than  that  the  board  is  not  at  hand!  Incom- 
petence is  often  pleaded  as  an  excuse,  but  a  little  daily  practice 
and  a  great  deal  of  resolution,  would  overcome  this  obstacle. 

It  is  a  reproach  to  teachers  when  they  cannot  write  quickly 
and  well  on  the  board,  and  draw  such  simple  forms  as  are 
<".ontinually  needed  to  make  their  meaning  clear. 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  6l 


Pictures. — A  classified  collection  of  pictures  should  form 
part  of  the  plant  of  every  school,  and  teachers  should  spare  na 
pains  to  enrich  their  portfolio  by  every  means  open  to  them. 
Illustrated  journals,  children's  magazines,  old  books  with 
plates  of  plants  and  animals,  views  of  scenery,  celebrated 
buildings,  historical  scenes,  national  costumes — all  these  and 
many  more  will  be  exceedingly  valuable  as  aids  to  education. 
It  is  clear  that  they  must  be  used  with  care  and  judgment.. 
The  design  is  not  to  amuse,  but  to  instruct.  It  is  possible  for 
the  children's  attention  to  be  so  concentrated  on  the  picture 
that  they  lose  sight  of  the  lesson  it  illustrates.  Not  more 
pictures  should  be  shewn  each  time,  than  can  be  thoroughly 
made  use  of  and  observed;  a  single  one  is  often  sufficient 
for  a  lesson. 

There  are  two  ways  of  using  pictures  for  class  illustra- 
tion. Some  teachers  give  their  lesson  from  the  picture 
— pointing  out  to  the  children,  as  they  go  on,  the  parts  which 
explain  their  meaning.  Others  give  the  lesson  first,  try  to 
excite  the  children's  curiosity,  and  finally  produce  the  picture. 
To  allow  the  class  to  glance  casually  at  a  number  of  such  illus- 
trations, as  though  they  were  looking  at  a  scrap-book,  would 
manifestly  be  a  waste  of  both  their  own  and  their  teacher's 
time.  Natural  objects  and  stuffed  birds  and  animals  are  like- 
wise very  useful  and  interesting.  The  bringing  of  live  animals 
into  the  schoolroom  is  inexpedient  for  many  reasons,  and 
quite  unnecessary.  - 

Illustrations  hy  Experiment. — This  branch  of  illus- 
trative teaching  is  an  indispensable  accompaniment  of  lessons 
in  chemistry,  but  it  would  be  impossible  to  enter  upon  so 
wide  a  subject  in  the  present  volume. 

School  Museums, — The  collecting  of  curious  and  inter- 
esting specimens  from  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature,  and  the 
grouping  of  them  in  school  museums,  has  become  very  general 
of  late  years.     There  is,   however,  a  danger  lest   they   de- 


b2  ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS. 


generate  into  mere  curiosities,  to  be  regarded  with  wonder  and 
admiration  by  the  children,  rather  than  as  objects  illustrative 
of  any  lessons  on  general  information  which  the  latter  may 
receive.  A  small  cabinet  filled  with  more  homely  specimens, 
attached  to  each  class-room,  is  better  for  educational  purposes 
than  a  general  museum  for  the  whole  school  upon  a  more 
elaborate  plan,  when  both  cannot  be  had.  Children  should  be 
encouraged  to  bring  contributions  to  the  museum.  They  will 
often  take  great  pride  and  pleasure  in  helping  to  form  a 
good  one. 


Sundry    Details. 

External  Appearance  of  the  School. — All  arrange- 
ments should  conduce  to  make  the  school  as  attractive  as 
possible  to  those  who  occupy  it.  Pavements,  paths,  and  play- 
grounds, should  be  well  swept  and  kept  free  from  litter  of  all 
kinds.  Gates  and  palings  must  have  a  coat  of  paint  whenever 
necessary,  and  be  kept  clear  of  dust.  If  there  are  flower 
borders,  these  must  have  constant  attention,  and  the  children 
be  trained  not  to  injure  the  plants. 

Interior  of  the  School.— Let  the  eye  of  the  teacher 
be  quick  to  note  dirt,  dust,  or  untidiness  of  any  sort — torn  paper, 
dead  flowers,  etc.,  and  let  her  shew  no  quarter,  but  give  the 
•caretaker  to  understand  that  a  clean,  bright  school  is  a 
necessity  to  a  good  teacher.  Pictures  must  bo  well  hung, 
books  and  apparatus  in  good  repair,  the  floor  free  from  ink- 
■spots,  cupboards  and  desks  in  perfect  order,  and  everything 
in  its  proper  place,  in  the  ideal  school. 

On  this  subject,  Mr.  Hitchins,  H.M.I.,  says — 
"  Much  might  be  done  to  keep  the  schools  cleaner  and  more  tidy.  There 
is  a  polishing  up  for  the  inspection,  but  the  few  visits  without  notice  I 
have  had  time  to  pay  during  the  year,  have  shewn  me  that  many 
schools  are  very  dirty,  that  hats  and  coats  on  the  floor  excite  no  surprise 
in  teachers'  minds,  and  that  the  ventilation  constantly  wants  looking 
after." 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  63 

These  words  convey  a  keen  reproach.  Surely  this  is  to  work 
•**  With  eye-service  as  men-pleasers." 

Supervision  of  Play- ground.  —  No  conscientious 
teacher  will  leave  her  class  without  supervision  in  the  play- 
ground ;  for  it  is  here  that  well-brought-up  children  learn  bad 
habits  and  profane  language.  Besides,  it  increases  a  teacher's 
influence  largely  if  she  evinces  sympathy  with  the  children's 
play,  and  helps  to  start  suitable  games.  Froebel  has  shewn 
us  how  much  may  be  taught  by  means  of  amusements,  and 
nowhere  are  his  sound  principles  more  applicable  than  in  the 
play-ground.  Again,  while  a  teacher  should  carefully  avoid 
acting  policeman,  she  should  yet  keep  a  strict  though  un- 
obtrusive supervision  over  her  charges,  never  allowing  two 
or  three  children  to  separate  themselves  from  the  rest  to 
talk  privately,  stopping  rough  games  and  horse-play,  and 
prohibiting  all  that  might  injure  the  children,  their  clothing,  or 
the  school  property. 

Ventilation. — Since,  to  a  certain  extent,  not  only  the 
moral  and  intellectual  training,  but  the  physical  well-being  of 
school-children  is  in  the  power  of  teachers,  it  behoves  them  to 
see  that  their  arrangements  help  to  promote  the  bodily  health 
and  vigour  of  their  scholars. 

This  remark  is  made  in  order  to  call  our  readers'  attention 
to  a  matter  of  detail  which  is,  too  often,  little  thought  of,  viz. : 
— the  ventilation  and  warming  of  the  schoolroom.  Impure 
air,  and  insufficient  or  excessive  warmth,  make  children  at 
once  dull  and  restless.  Before  school  commences,  the  head- 
teacher,  or  some  competent  person,  should  ascertain  that 
due  provision  is  made  in  every  class-room  for  the  admission 
of  fresh  air,  and  the  providing  of  warmth  when  necessary. 
Children  should  not  be  exposed  to  draughts  and  glaring  light. 
Monitors  should  be  instructed  to  pull  down  or  draw  up  blinds, 
and  to  open  and  shut  windows,  as  is  most  expedient. 

Between  school-hours,  and  while  children  are  in  the  play- 


64  ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS. 

ground,  doors  and  windows  should  be  set  open  and  the  air 
thoroughly  changed. 


Foresight.— The  faculty  of  looking  forward  and  providing 
for  contingencies  is  not  less  valuable  in  school-work  than  in 
any  other  important  undertaking.  Each  teacher  should  enter 
school  with  the  day's  work  mapped  out  in  her  mind,  and  any 
consulting  of  time-tables  should  be  done  previous  to  the 
commencement  of  teaching.  Foresight  is  especially  incumbent 
upon  the  principal  teacher.  All  arrangements  for  special 
examinations,  addresses  to  the  children,  school -holidays 
and  festivals,  should  be  made  well  in  advance.  Necessary 
apparatus  ought  to  be  replenished  before  the  stock  is  com- 
pletely exhausted ;  e.g.,  to  wait  till  the  last  slate-pencil  is  in 
use,  or  the  last  drop  of  ink  has  been  drained  from  the  bottle^ 
before  asking  for  more,  is  bad  policy  and  false  economy. 

Just  as,  previous  to  the  opening  of  school,  all  apparatus, 
books,  and  other  necessaries  must  be  placed  in  readiness,  so, 
in  the  course  of  the  lessons,  whatever  is  not  wanted  should 
be  at  once  restored  to  its  place.  At  the  close  of  school, 
there  should  be  a  general  straightening-up  of  each  room. 
Everything  should  be  put  neatly  away,  blackboards  and  slates 
cleaned,  the  chalk  shaken  from  dusters,  plants  watered,  and 
the  clock  attended  to  if  needful.  This  is  also  the  best  time 
to  sharpen  pencils,  and  inspect  penholders  and  inkwells. 

After  school-hours  on  Friday,  each  teacher  should  make  a 
careful  examination  of  all  the  school  property  under  her  care. 
Books,  pens,  and  pencils,  should  be  counted,  and  their 
condition  noted.  Cupboards  should  be  put  in  perfect  order, 
and  all  so  prepared  for  the  opening  of  school  on  Monday 
morning  that  there  shall  be  no  details  left  to  claim  attention  at 
that  busy  moment. 

On  Friday  afternoon,  too,  the  teachers  should  apply  for 
such  stores  as  they  require.  These  applications  should  be 
made  formally,  and  at  a  specified  time.     All  stores  given  out 


ATTENTION    TO    DETAILS.  65 


ought  to  be  entered  in  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
entry  signed  by  the  teacher  for  whose  use  they  are  allotted. 


What  a  Child  is  required  to  do,  he  must  be 
Trained  to  do,  is  a  truth  which  cannot  be  too  often  re- 
peated. Pupils  can  be  trained  to  walk  and  move  quietly,  to 
keep  silence,  to  speak  gently  and  distinctly;  in  short,  to  do 
anything  which  the  teacher  desires  to  be  done,  and  in  the 
way  she  desires  it.  But  she  must  first  explain  clearly  to  the 
class  what  she  wants  them  to  do;  then,  she  must  accustom 
them  to  do  this  instantly  and  with  great  precision,  at  the 
word  of  command. 

It  will  be  found  the  same  with  everything.  Let  the 
children  and  subordinate  teachers  once  realise  that  the 
teacher-in-charge  is  determined  to  have  perfection  in  details, 
and  they  will  fall  almost  unconsciously  into  her  ways.  They 
may  chafe  a  little  under  her  rule  at  first,  and  perhaps  think 
her  fussy  about  trifles ;  still,  they  will  soon  reap  the  benefit 
and  recognise  the  advantage  of  such  conscientious  care,  and 
will  become,  in  their  turn,  warm  advocates  of — Attention  to 
Details. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


How  to  make  Teaching  Efficient. 

IN  the  foregoing  chapters,  we  have  had  under  consideration 
some  important  questions:  among  them— how  children 
can  be  so  trained,  as  to  be  not  only  perfectly  obedient  and 
orderly,  but  to  concentrate  their  thoughts  upon  the  study  of 
the  moment ;  also,  how  teachers,  if  they  are  to  achieve  success, 
must  pay  unremitting  attention  to  details.  We  may  now 
ask — Is  this  all  ?  Decidedly  not.  The  minds  of  the  children 
having  been  fitted  and  prepared  for  the  reception  of  sound 
and  suitable  instruction,  the  teacher  must  next  proceed  to 
gratify  the  appetite  for  knowledge  which  she  has  tried  to 
excite.  She  must  be  familiar  with  every  subject  she  has  to 
teach,  and  spare  no  trouble  to  make  her  lessons  instructive 
and  pleasant. 

The  Exercises  should  be  made  Interesting:.— To 

this  assertion  we  can  imagine  a  score  of  objections  will  be 
brought  forward,  as — "  How  can  we  make  such  subjects  as 
sums,  spelling,  and  grammar,  interesting  to  young  people  ? 
We  might  do  somethings  provided  we  were  allowed  to  use 
our  own  plans;  but,  weighed  down  as  we  are,  by  an  iron 
Code,  etc.,  etc." 

We  make  answer  to  this — that  doubtless  there  are  diffi- 
culties in  the  way,  but  these  should  only  stimulate  the  devoted 
teacher  to  more  determined  effort.  We  have  a  firm  faith  in 
the  power  of  good  teaching  to  render  the  most  prosaic  subject 
attractive,  and,  in  the  course  of  these  pages,  hope  to  shew 
that  even  arithmetic  and  spelling  may  be  made  more  or  less 
pleasant  to  our  scholars. 


HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING   EFFICIENT.  67 


Then  the  Code,  though  some  of  its  enactments  are  still  a 
trial  to  conscientious  teachers,  is  more  elastic  than  of  yore, 
and  shews  symptoms  of  still  further  changing  the  material 
'of  which  it  is  composed — from  iron  to  india-rubber!  The 
inspector,  too,  of  the  present  day,  is  generally  a  man  of 
enlightened  ideas  on  the  subject  of  education,  and  earnestly 
desirous  of  the  children's  true  good;  within  certain  limits,  he  will 
accord  his  sympathy  and  sanction  to  any  plan  for  lightening 
the  burden  of  learning  for  the  Httle  people  under  his  juris- 
diction. 

It  is  not  so  much  in  the  subjects  of  instruction,  as  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  taught,  that  teachers  must  seek  a 
remedy  for  the  excessive  dulness  that  prevails  in  so  many 
schools.  The  children  must  be  provided  with  ideas.  The 
teacher's  manner  of  conducting  a  class  must  shew  that  she  is 
interested  in  her  work,  and  esteems  it  an  honour  and  pleasure 
to  instruct  the  young.  It  must  not  convey  the  impression — 
""  Oh,  dear,  this  is  the  hundredth  time  I  have  heard  this  same 
•wretched  lesson,  what  a  weariness  it  is  !  "  On  the  contrary, 
Iby  her  briskness,  energy,  and  alertness,  added  to  a  pleasant, 
smiling  face,  she  must  impart  spirit  and  happiness  to  her  class. 
Manner  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  making  instruction  accept- 
able ;  and  we  shall  always  maintain  that  teachers,  who  shew 
by  their  bearing  that  they  dislike  children  and  consider  teaching 
'"  a  bore,"  are  impostors,  and  ought  to  retire  from  this 
onerous  and  honourable  profession. 

The  teacher  should  be  full  of  animation.  Her  tone  of  voice, 
,her  every  look  and  gesture,  should  show  how  deeply  concerned 
she  is  in  the  well-being  of  each  pupil.  By  study  and  pains- 
taking effort,  she  must  labour  to  make  herself  a  perfect 
teacher.  In  her  calling,  there  are  too  many  grave  issues  at 
stake  to  allow  of  mediocrity. 

The  Lessons  must  be  adapted  to  the  Pupils* 
Previous  Attainments. — All  subjects  should  be  pre- 
sented to  children  in  a  manner  adapted  to  their  age.     Most  of 


68  HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 

the  books  on  elementary  science — physiology,  hygiene,  botany 
and  other  subjects — although  written  professedly  for  children,. 
are  more  suited  to  medical — and  other — students  of  nineteen 
or  twenty.  It  therefore  becomes  the  teacher's  duty  to  simplify 
these,  and  present  knowledge  to  her  pupils  in  such  a  form  that 
they  can  assimilate  it.  Step-by-step  instruction,  thorough- 
grounding  from  the  very  beginning,  and  plenty  of  interesting 
facts  supplied  throughout,  is  what  children  want.  They  need, 
in  short,  to  be  taught  as  nature  teaches  them,  when  they 
first  gain  impressions  through  the  medium  of  their  senses. 

Mental  Activity  must  be  Aroused. — Activity  both 
of  mind  and  body  is  an  instinct  of  childhood.  Idleness  in  the 
young  is  so  directly  opposed  to  their  natural  propensities,, 
that,  where  it  is  found,  it  must  be  either  the  result  of  bad 
education  or  some  constitutional  defect.  How  necessary,  then,, 
is  it  to  use  every  means  to  utilize  and  satisfy  the  mental 
activity  of  the  scholars!  To  ensure  this,  they  should  not 
be  told  what  they  can  easily  find  out  for  themselves.  It  is 
stated  in  one  of  Mr.  Hughes's  excellent  Manuals'^  that  the 
Welsh  word  for  schoolmaster  inea.ns  "one  who  teaches  to  climb." 
So  teachers  should  not  merely  climb  the  ladder  of  learning 
themselves  and  throw  down  treasures  to  their  scholars,  but 
should  encourage  the  latter  to  exert  themselves  to  attain 
knowledge.  Many  children  simply  repeat  after  the  teacher 
what  they  ought  to  acquire  by  their  own  efforts. 

All  Teaching  Should  Convey  Clear  Ideas. — A 

child  who  was  asked  :  "When  a  man  gets  weak  and  is  easily 
tired,  what  is  that  a  sign  of  ?  "  replied,  "  It  shews  that  his  whole 
cistern  has  run  down."  This,  and  numbers  of  similar  blunders,, 
prove  that  teachers  often  give  children  credit  for  under- 
standing the  words  used,  while  they  are  carrying  away 
most  distorted  ideas  of  the  subject.  The  evil  would  be 
obviated,   if   scholars  were   trained  to   ask   the  meaning  of 

•Mistakes  in  Teaching,  by  J.  D.  Hughes :  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York. 


HOW    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT.  69 


any  term  not  fully  understood,  and  if  the  plans  recommended 
in  this  book  for  teaching  the  elements  of  composition  were 
vigorously  carried  out.  Weie  children  taught  from  the  first 
to  express  on  their  slates,  and  in  other  ways,  the  impressions 
they  receive,  teachers  would  have  the  opportunity  of  cor- 
recting those  impressions  when  they  were  defective. 

Lessons    must    not    be    too    Long. — It   may   be 

said  that,  in  schools  under  Government,  the  time-table  pro- 
vides against  this  abuse.  Yes,  but  is  it  not  the  case  that 
teachers  sometimes  prolong  the  lesson  considerably  after  the 
time  for  a  change  has  passed  ?  This  want  of  exactness  and 
punctuality  is  at  the  root  of  a  great  deal  of  the  weariness  and 
.brain-fag  from  which  the  poor  children  suffer.  It  is  one  of  the 
principal  functions  of  the  head  mistress,  or  the  organising 
teacher,  to  see  that  the  time-table  is  conscientiously  kept,  and 
-lessons  changed  to  the  minute. 


We  will  now  consider  a  process  which  has  much  to  do  with 
imparting  interest  to  the  instruction  given — 

The  Art  of  Questioning. 

This  is  an  art,  and  one  of  great  importance  to  the  instructor. 
Indeed,  it  comes  very  high  up  on  the  list  of  essentials  for  good 
teaching.  To  question  well  is  a  proof  of  rare  skill ;  still,  it  is 
not  so  much  a  natural  gift  as  the  result  of  careful  self-training 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Those  who  excel  in  it  will  be 
found  to  have  given  themselves  diligently  to  that  study  whioh 
— let  us  say  again — should  engross  every  one  who  teaches — 
The  Child. 

Questioning  in  General. — All  who  are  engaged  in  the 
-work  of  practical  teaching  must  be  conscious  that  something 
^inore    is    needed    than    the    ability    to    impart     knowledge 


yO  HOW    TO    MAKETEACHING    EFFICIENT. 


attractively  and  thoroughly.  It  is  necessary  that,  by  some 
method  or  other,  three  things  should  be  ascertained : — First, 
what  knowledge,  if  any,  is  possessed  by  the  children  on  the 
subject  of  a  proposed  lesson  before  it  is  given  ;  Secondly, 
what  is  being  grasped  and  understood  dimng  the  lesson ; 
and  lastly,  what  is  the  sum  total  of  the  results  of  the  lesson. 

For  each  of  these  stages,  one  of  three  processes  may  be 
used.  The  children  may  be  required  {a)  to  tell  all  they  know 
in  a  continuous  speech  ;  (h)  to  write  all  they  know  ;  or  (r)  they 
may  be  qtiestioned  on  what  they  know.  The  first  method — 
excellent  as  it  is  in  itself — is  not  adapted  to  quite  young 
children,  especially  when  there  are  many  in  a  class.  The 
second  takes  too  much  time,  except  in  the  case  of  scholars 
who  can  write  rapidly.  The  third  is  the  plan  commonly  pur- 
sued at  all  three  stages  of  the  lesson.  These  we  will  speak 
of,  for  convenience'  sake,  as  the  Introductory,  Intermediate, 
and  P'inal  stages. 

Introductory  QrUestioning"  is  equally  desirable  whether 
the  subject  be  entirely  new  to  the  pupils,  or  one  with  which 
they  are  partly  familiar.  Its  chief  object  is  to  discover  what 
the  children  know  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  proposed 
lesson,  thus  enabling  the  teacher  to  ascertain  at  which  point 
to  begin.  This  initiatory  probing  must  be  brief,  and,  if 
skilfully  conducted,  should  not  only  indicate  the  teacher's 
starting  point,  but  also  show  the  children  their  own  deficiencies, 
arouse  their  curiosity,  and  predispose  them  to  receive  with 
interest  the  knowledge  about  to  be  imparted. 

Intermediate  Questioning  requires  much  tact,  judg- 
ment, and  skill.  A  lesson  must  not  be  a  lecture,  i.e.,  it  must 
not  be  a  lengthy  address  without  breaks — this  style  of  teaching: 
not  being  adapted  to  the  pupils  in  Elementary  Schools.  In 
giving  instruction  to  these  children,  a  definite  portion  of 
information — greater  or  less  in  quantity  according  to  the 
standard — is  generally  given,   and  then  a  few  minutes  are 


HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHIN'G    EFFICIENT. 


spent  in  questioning.  Some  lessons,  especially  those  on  rules 
of  arithmetic  or  grammar,  and  most  lessons  on  moral  subjects 
— such  as  anger,  cruelty,  or  truthfulness — may  be  given  almost 
entirely  by  means  of  questions.  These  must  be  asked  in  logical 
order,  and  so  framed  that,  without  directly  suggesting  the  idea 
or  fact  to  be  communicated,  they  should  enable  the  pupils  to 
give  the  required  answer,  either  from  previous  knowledge  or  by 
the  exercise  of  their  reasoning  powers.  When  the  proper  reply 
is  not  given,  the  teacher  should  retrace  her  steps  and  try  again 
to  lead  the  minds  of  the  pupils  towards  the  answer  she  wishes 
to  get.  If  she  does  not  succeed,  it  will  be  due  either  to  lack  of 
skill  on  her  own  part,  or  of  intelligence  on  the  part  of  her  pupils  ; 
and  the  answer  must  then  be  supplied.  Test  questioning  ought 
to  be  introduced  at  the  principal  divisions  of  a  lesson — 
not  in  order  to  convey  anything  like  fresh  information,  but  to 
ascertain  that  the  substance  of  the  teaching  is  really  being 
grasped:  this  must  not,  however,  be  out  of  proportion  to  the 
time  at  command. 

Final  duestiouing. — This  is  to  be  considered  as  an  oral 
examination.  Questions  at  the  end  of  a  lesson  should  be  both 
rapid  and  searching,  and  not  in  any  degree  suggestive  of 
the  answers  to  be  given.  Teachers  should  only  touch 
on  those  parts  of  the  subject-matter,  which  are  the  most 
difficult  to  understand,  or  most  important  to  be  remembered. 
The  easier  portions  may  be  left  unnoticed.  When  children 
know  that  they  will  have  a  lively  exercise  of  probing 
questions  at  the  end  of  their  lessons,  they  will  certainly 
feel  an  additional  interest  in  them.  There  are  marked  differ- 
ences in  the  oral-examination  powers  of  different  teachers. 
Some  persons — by  their  tact  in  questioning — seem  able  to 
draw  quite  brilliant  replies  from  children,  when  others  utterly 
fail  to  elicit  any  rational  answer.  | 

Question  all  through  the  Lesson. — Some  teachers 
only  question  for  the  sake  of  recapitulation.     This  is  a  serious 


72  HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 

error.  As  we  said  above,  "Intermediate  questioning"  is 
necessary,  especially  with  the  very  young.  One  purpose  of 
questioning  is,  undoubtedly,  to  test  knowledge,  but  it  is  not 
its  highest  function ;  this  is,  to  rouse  the  minds  of  our  pupils 
to  activity,  and  help  them  to  make  discoveries  for  them- 
selves. It  is  well  said,  that  "  He  who  imparts  knowledge  to 
the  human  mind  is  a  benefactor  ;  but  a  far  greater  benefactor 
is  he  who  wakes  up  that  mind  to  seek  knowledge  for  itself." 

Another  advantage  of  frequent  questioning  is  to  impress  facts 
upon  the  learners'  minds.  Few  teachers  realise  how  often  a 
subject  must  be  gone  over,  before  they  can  hope  that  it  will  be 
stamped  on  the  memory  of  their  pupils.  Skilled  and  experi- 
enced teachers,  when  giving  object  or  science  lessons,  will 
furnish  full,  clear  instruction  upon  two  or  three  facts,  and  then 
question ;  they  will  next  add  two  or  three  more  facts,  then 
question  again  from  the  beginning ;  and  so  on  throughout  the 
lesson.  Before  concluding,  they  will  have  a  short,  rapid 
examination  of  the  whole ;  and  they  will  commence  every 
successive  lesson  with  recapitulation  of  the  preceding  one. 

Of  course,  the  amount  of  information,  or  number  of  facts 
given  out  before  questions  are  asked,  must  be  regulated  mainly 
by  the  mental  capacities  of  the  class.  The  higher  standards 
should  be  told  more  at  a  time  than  the  lower  ones,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  only  so  much  information  should  be  given 
to  any  standard,  as  all  the  children — sharp  as  well  as  dull 
ones — are  likely  to  understand  and  remember.  If  teachers 
must  err,  let  it  be  on  the  side  of  over-questioning,  rather  than 
the  reverse  ;  and  let  them  take  care  that  no  pupil's  eye 
wanders  while  they  speak ;  if  anyone  looks  inattentive,  a 
direct  question  should  be  addressed  to  him. 

Rarely  put  a  question  by  which  a  Trap  is  laid 
for  the  answerer. — Such  questions  as — "  What  is  the 
eleventh  Commandment  ?  "  "  How  many  times  is  the  earth 
larger  than  the  sun  ? "  are  a  mistake.  It  is  true  that  the 
occasional  use  of  trap-questions  may  help  to  brighten  children — 


HOW    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT.  73 

-when  accepted  by  them  as  a  little  pleasantry ;  but  they  must  not 
be  often  resorted  to,  and  should  never  be  on  serious  subjects. 


Directions  for  Skilful  Questioning. 

(a)  Stand  in  such  a  position  that  every  child  can  see  and  hear 
you.  Pronounce  each  sentence  distinctly — emphasising  any 
word  that  requires  it. 

(b)  Make  every  question  short  and  plain,  and,  as  much  as 
you  can,  an  exercise  of  the  children's  thinking  powers. 

(c)  Let  the  questions  follow  each  other  with  a  due  regard  to 
the  natural  order  of  the  facts  and  principles  to  be  taught, 
.i.e.,  do  not  question  backwards  and  forwards  in  a  lesson.  Such 
,a  practice  encourages  irregular  thinking,  both  in  the  pupils 
and  teacher. 

(d)  Allow  no  answer  to  pass  that  contains  grammatical 
-errors,  or  slang  terms.  All  such  faults  should  be  corrected 
by  the  scholars  themselves,  when  possible.  This  point  some- 
times requires  considerable  tact,  as  children  are  sensitive 
about  these  criticisms. 

(e)  Be  prompt;  do  not  keep  the  children  waiting  between 
.an  answer  and  the  next  question. 

(/)  Never  repeat  what  they  have  failed  to  hear  through 
inattention.  If  they  do  not  understand  what  you  say, 
'Change  the  wording,  and  put  the  question  again.  Also  try 
not  to  acquire  a  habit  of  repeating,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
•class,  every  answer  you  get,  but  make  the  answerer  speak 
so  distinctly  that  all  can  hear  him. 

(g)  Keep  your  eyes  upon  the  whole  class,  instead  of  looking 
fixedly  at  the  scholar  who  is  speaking.  A  child  is  sometimes 
-quite  disconcerted  by  a  fixed  stare,  and  begins  to  stumble  and 
blunder. 

{h)  Never  allow  children  to  answer  together,  unless  (for  some 
good  purpose)  you  give  them  leave  to  do  so  for  a  brief  interval. 
Make  them  hold  up  hands,  and  then  select  the  pupil  you  wish 


74  HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 

to  answer,  but  do  not  keep  the  class  waiting  if  he  fails  to  reply.. 
Choose  another  at  once.  When  a  child  persists  in  answering 
without  permission,  it  is  sometimes  well  to  impose  silence  on 
him  for  the  remainder  of  the  lesson.  In  questioning  on  a 
reading  lesson,  it  is  better  that  neither  the  question  nor  the- 
answer  should  be  in  the  exact  words  of  the  book. 

(i)  Avoid  entirely  the  elliptical  form  of  questioning.    This. 

leads  to  mere  guessing,  e.g. — The  eye  is  the  organ  of ? 

Coffee  was  first  introduced  into  England  by ? 

(j)  Let  the  answering  be  general.  Take  care  that  the  sharp 
children  do  not  monopolise  the  speaking  while  the  dullards 
look  on  apathetically.  Make  the  timid  and  backward  scholars 
do  their  share,  by  asking  questions  which  are  more  and  more 
easy,  till  you  find  yourself  on  a  level  with  their  comprehension. 
The  children  who  should  answer  most  of  the  questions,  are  those 
of  average  attainments.  Intelligent  scholars  in  the  upper 
standards  should  sometimes  be  required  to  give  answers  of. 
considerable  length. 

(k)  In  order  to  test  whether  all  have  been  attending,  occa- 
sionally make  the  children  answer  in  turn. 

(/)  Avoid  putting  questions  which  can  be  answered  by 
*'Yes"  or  "No." 

(m)  Do  not  allow  the  children  to  speak  hastily,  or  to  guess 
at  an  answer ;  but  train  them  to  think  before  they  speak. 

(n)  Never  put  a  question  which  the  class  cannot  reasonably 
be  expected  to  answer.  Teachers  are  rightly  recommended  to 
question  from  the  known  to  the  unknown ;  but  they,  at  times, 
resort  to  the  bad  habit  of  beginning  with  the  unknown^  thus, 
tempting  the  children  to  indulge  in  guessing. 

Answering^. — At  the  same  time  that  teachers  make  it 
one  of  their  chief  aims  to  question  well,  they  must  also  bestow 
some  thought  upon  the  best  way  to  accept  and  dispose  of  the 
answers  they  receive.  All  the  children  in  a  class,  even  the 
dullest,  must  be  encouraged  to  answer  by  questions  level  to- 
their  capacity.     If  the  answer  received   from  a  child  is  not. 


HOW    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT.  75 


correct,  or  is  not  properly  expressed,  the  other  pupils  who  have- 
held  out  their  hands,  should  be  allowed  to  rectify  the  mistake. 

Sometimes  wrong,  or  apparently  stupid  answers,  are  worthy 
of  notice,  as  enabling  the  teacher  to  put  right  some  misap- 
prehension of  the  children,  which  she  might  otherwise  have 
remained  in  ignorance  of.  Thoughtful,  well-worded,  distinctly- 
given  answers  should  receive  commendation.  A  longer  time 
may  be  allowed  for  answers  requiring  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  thought. 

A  teacher  must  guard,  on  the  one  hand,  against  requiring 
an  answer  to  be  expressed  exactly  as  she  herself  may  have- 
framed  it  in  her  own  mind  (except  in  the  case  of  exact, 
definitions  or  quotations),  and  on  the  other,  from  accepting 
answers  that  are  uncertain  in  meaning,  or  expressed  in  a  slip- 
shod manner.  If  an  answer  is  partly  wrong,  the  correct  part, 
should  be  separated  from  the  incorrect. 

Children  should  not  be  allowed  to  laugh  at  each  other's 
answers,  neither  should  the  teacher  betray  amusement  or 
surprise  herself,  however  strange  and  unexpected  the  reply 
may  be.  A  teacher  who  can  contrive  to  take  unlooked-for 
replies  with  immovable  composure,  and  turn  them  to  some 
good  account,  shews  that  she  possesses  rare  skill,  resource, 
and  presence  of  mind. 

Answers  which  are  very  meagre — consisting  of  a  single 
word  only — should  not  be  accepted,  yet  they  must  be  free 
from  awkward  repetitions.  Some  theorists  recommend  that 
children  should  be  trained  to  repeat  the  question  in  the 
answer,  thus  : — "Who  was  the  discoverer  of  America  ? "  "  The 
discoverer  of  America  was  Christopher  Columbus."  A  little 
reflection  will,  however,  shew  that  this  is  a  mistake.  The 
answer  is  the  completion  of  the  question,  therefore  to  repeat  the 
latter  is  mere  tautology.  It  teaches  the  children  a  clumsy,. 
artificial  style,  whereas  our  object  should  be  to  make  them 
speak  as  naturally  as  possible.  No  child  if  asked,  "  Which 
lessons  have  you  learned  to-day  ?"  would  reply,  "The  lessons. 
.1  have  learned  to-day  are ." 


76  HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 


Encourage  Children  to  Ask  Questions. — Children 
•should  be  encouraged  to  ask  explanations  of  what  they  do  not 
understand — provided  their  questions  bear  upon  the  lesson. 
It  is  a  natural  instinct  which  leads  children  to  make  en- 
quiries about  what  interests  them,  and  the  wise  teacher  will 
try  to  turn  this  instinct  to  account.  When  she  is  ignorant  of 
the  right  answer,  she  ought  to  feel  no  difficulty  in  saying — *'  I 
■do  not  know."  To  some  questions  she  will  be  forced  to  reply — 
■**  This  has  never  yet  been  discovered,"  or  ''  It  cannot  be 
known  on  this  side  Eternity." 

All  flippant,  impertinent  questions,  should  be  met  with  re- 
proof or  silence,  and  the  enquirer  forbidden  to  put  any  query 
•during  a  given  time.  Neither  must  the  children  be  allowed 
to  ask  questions  promiscuously  or  too  frequently,  as  this 
would  be  detrimental  to  order  and  discipline.  For  easy 
subjects,  the  end  of  the  lesson  is  the  best  time.  In  difficult 
lessons,  enquiries  may  be  allowed  at  the  close  of  each  main 
division  of  the  subject. 


Exercising  the    Memory. 

Importance  of  Learning  by  Heart. — Although  the 
principal  object  of  education  is  to  develop  the  reasoning  and 
•observing  faculties,  still  the  training  of  the  memory  must  on 
00  account  be  neglected.  /  It  would  really  seem  as  though  people 
must  be  always  in  one  extreme  or  another  on  the  subject  of 
•education;  for,  in  the  reaction  from  the  excessive  memory- 
tests  of  former  times,  learning  by  heart  is  now  unduly  dis- 
paraged. Yet  this  exercise  will  prove  of  great  value  to  the 
scholar  throughout  his  whole  after-life,  besides  enabling  him 
to  pass  examinations  with  credit  during  his  early  years. 

Home  Lessons  must  be  Carefully  Explained. — 

In  assigning  memory  work  which  is  to  be  done  at  home, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  give  tasks  that  are  too  long  or 
difficult ;   likewise,  before  they  are   taken  in  hand,  no  pains 


HOW    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT.  77 

must  be  spared  to  explain  everything  that  a  scholar  might 
possibly  misunderstand.  Let  every  word,  every  phrase,  and 
every  allusion  be  thoroughly  understood,  before  children^ 
attempt  to  commit  anything  to  memory. 

First,  it  must  be  ascertained  that  they  can  read  and  pro- 
nounce each  word  ;  next  must  come  the  careful  explanation ;. 
lastly  a  few  quick  questions  to  ascertain  that  all  have  received 
the  correct  impression. 

Scholars  should  be  Taught  how  to  Learn  by 
Heart. — Children  should  be  instructed  as  to  the  best  way  of 
committing  passages  to  memory.  This  they  will  do  by 
first  reading  over  the  paragraph  twice  or  thrice  attentively  and. 
intelHgently — so  concentrating  their  thoughts  the  while  upon, 
the  subject  that  the  impression  made  is  as  vivid  as  possible. 
They  must,  in  the  next  place,  deepen  this  impression  by  re- 
petition, after  the  following  manner  : — 

,  Taking  the  first  phrase  or  sentence,  they  repeat  it  till  perfect ; 
proceeding  to  the  second,  they  act  in  the  same  manner;  they 
then  say  both  together,  and  go  on  to  the  third.  Having,  in. 
this  way,  reached  the  end  of  the  paragraph,  they  close  the 
book  and  say  the  entire  passage  twice  by  heart.  The  next 
paragraph  undergoes  similar  treatment.  From  want  of  know- 
ing a  good  system,  many  children  never  succeed  in  com- 
mitting easily  to  memory  what  they  are  required  to  learn. 

The  teacher  may  greatly  strengthen  the  pupils'  memory  by 
shewing  them  how  to  arrange  their  ideas  in  some  kind  ot 
sequence.  The  subject  is  too  large  to  enter  upon  here,  but  we 
will  give  one  brief  illustration  of  what  we  mean.  Most  teachers 
have  found  that  children  in  learning  poetry  have  a  tendency 
to  lose  their  way,  to  transpose  the  verses,  or  omit  some 
altogether.  "  I  can't  remember  what  comes  next,"  the  poor 
child  says ;  and  no  wonder,  for,  having  learned  to  connect  them 
by  rote  only,  the  slender  thread  is  easily  broken,  and  will 
not   readily   reunite.      The   case,   however,   will   be   entirely 


78  HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 

•altered  if  the  teacher,  after  having  thoroughly  explained  the 
subject  and  principal  idea  of  the  whole  poem,  gives  the  leading 
thought  of  each  verse  to  be  first  committed  to  memory.  Very 
little  difficulty  w411  then  be  experienced  in  placing  the  verses 
in  their  proper  order.  For  instance : — Supposing  the  lines  to  be 
learnt  are  Longfellow's  "  Excelsior,"  the  connecting  links 
suggested  might  run  somewhat  thus  : — 

(i)  The  banner  bearer,  and  his  high  purpose;  (2)  His 
•description ;  (3)  Temptations  to  ease ;  (4)  The  old  man's 
warning ;  (5)  The  maiden  ;  (6)  The  peasant ;  (y)  The  S.  Bcr- 
inard  monks;  (8)  The  faithful  hound;  (9)  Death  and  victory. 

The  same  method  may  be  applied  with  advantage  to  learning 
ilong  pieces  of  prose.  A  list  in  brief  terms  should  be  made  of 
the  subjects  of  the  various  paragraphs,  and  then  learnt  as  a 
:guide  to  saying  the  whole. 

Again,  the  principle  of  association  may  be  turned  to  account 
iby  the  learners  forming,  each  one  for  himself,  connecting  links 
with  any  ordinary  facts,  places,  or  names — in  short,  a  kind  of 
Memoria  Technica.  In  learning  the  position  of  the  notes  on  the 
treble  stave  in  music,  pupils  have  long  been  taught  to 
remember  that  the  letters  of  the  word  "  Face"  stand  for  the 
notes  in  the  spaces.  This  is  a  simple  instance  of  a  process 
which  admits  of  occasional  application,  but  which  will  depend 
for  success  on  each  one's  tact  and  acuteness.  Such  expedi- 
ents will  not  of  course  bear  comparison  with  the  more 
intelligent  plan  of  summarising  the  main  incidents  or  divi- 
sions, of  the  piece  to  be  learnt.  Still,  whenever  the  teacher 
finds  that  the  children  have  a  peculiar  difficulty  in  remembering 
dates,  geographical  lists,  or  any  sequence  of  facts,  she  should 
•endeavour  to  invent  some  such  mechanical  aid  to  memory,  or 
.■encourage  them  to  do  so  for  themselves. 

Benefit  of  Private  Study.-YOne  good  reason  for 
inducing  children  to  study  in  private  is — that  it  makes  them 
industrious  and  self-dependent.;  The  teacher  who  tries  to  do 
-everything   for  her   pupils,   who   saves    them   all    effort,   anti 


MOW    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT.  79 

never  trusts  them  to  learn  anything  out  of  her  sight,  will  wear 
herself  out  and  do  them  an  injury  at  one  and  the  same  time. 
It  is  a  grave  error  not  to  insist  upon  the  scholars  taking  their 
fair  share  of  work.  One  purpose  of  education  is  to  train 
the  young  to  apply  themselves  to  their  duty,  and  resist  such 
temptations  to  idleness  as  would  interfere  with  it.  But  how 
•can  a  child's  character  be  thus  strengthened,  if  he  is  never 
allowed  to  study  alone,  and  all  is  done  for  him  at  the  teacher's 
expense  ?  Even  the  memory  work  that  has  to  be  learnt  in 
school,  need  not  be  repeated  after  the  teacher.  Far  better  is 
it  to  let  the  children  learn  silently,  and  thus  cultivate  a 
habit  of  independent  thinking  and  working.  It  is  good 
exercise  for  them,  and  gives  their  instructors  a  little  breathing 
time.  In  the  low  standards  of  poor  schools,  where  very  little 
home-study  can  be  done,  it  is  well  to  devote  the  last  half-hour 
to  memory  work,  and  then  let  the  children  leave  as  soon  as 
they  can  say  the  appointed  task. 

Parrot-like  Learning.— When  a  child  studies  the  words 
privately,  there  is, far  more  chance  of  his  understanding 
their  sense,  than  when  they  are  simply  repeated  after  the 
teacher,  according  to  the  plan  so  often  pursued.  We  say  there 
is  more  hope,  but  it  is  really  only  a  question  of  degree.  Children 
have  an  almost  boundless  capacity  for  stringing  together 
not  only  sounds,  but  printed  words,  without  attaching  any 
meaning  whatever  to  them.  Grown-up  people,  in  general, 
know  so  little  of  the  working  of  children's  minds,  that  they 
cannot  believe  that  the  latter  are  able  to  speak  of  a  thing  in 
correct  phraseology,  and  even  answer  questions  about  it  fluently, 
and  all  the  time  remain  quite  ignorant  of  w^iat  the  thing  itself 
is  !  Every  now  and  then  these  good  folks  are  startled  to  dis- 
cover the  jumble  that  exists  in  the  minds  of  tae  very  children 
whom  they  had  considered  prodigies  of  youthful  talent. 

It  may  be  at  some  Sunday  School  Exa.nination  that  their 
eyes  are  opened,  when  apparently  intel  ig  mt  boys  and  girls — 
being  called  upon  to  zvrite  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  some  portion 


8o  now    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 

of  the  Church  Catechism — begin  the  former,  "  Our  Father 
chart  in  Heaven,  hullobee  my  name ; "   and  seem  undecided 
in  their  minds  as  to  whether  "a  pledge  to  assure  (us  thereof) ' 
should  be  rendered — "  a  plough  to  a  shore,"  or  "  a  plague  to  a 
sewer." 

Or  the  veil  may  be  lifted  during  the  ordinary  day-school 
routine,  when  it  transpires  that  a  lad,  who  has  worked  weights- 
and-measure  sums,  with  grand  results,  for  two  years  and  more^ 
has  not  the  faintest  conception  what  is  meant  by  a  measure — 
perhaps  suggests  that  it  is  "  something  to  eat." 

In  a  paper,  published  many  years  ago,  on — ^'  The  Artificial 
Production  of  Stupidity,"  the  author  cites  the  case  of  a  boy 
who  could  repeat  with  fluency  the  names  of  "  all  the  capitals 
in  the  world ;  "  but  being  suddenly  asked,  "  What  is  a  capital  ? ' 
replied,  "A  beast."  Numerous  similar  instances  might  be 
quoted,  all  tending  to  prove  the  absolute  necessity  of  probing 
a  child's  mind  before  he  is  allowed  to  commit  anything  to 
memory. 

There  is  a  terrible  waste  of  intelligence  going  on  around 
us ;  and  all  teachers  are  called  on  to  do  their  utmost  to  let 
light  into  the  minds  of  those  under  their  charge — never 
taking  it  for  granted  that  a  child  understands  anything  till 
there  is  undoubted  testimony  to  the  fact. 

Home -lessons  and  Parents. — A  good  system  of  home- 
study  recommends  a  school  greatly  in  the  eyes  of  parents. 
They  may  murmur  occasionally  at  the  inconvenience  caused 
them  personally  by  the  time  required  for  preparation,  but  they 
secretly  entertain  a  high  opinion  of  the  school  and  its  manage- 
ment. Often  they  are  willing  to  help  their  children  with  the 
lessons,  and  will  watch  their  progress  with  keen  interest. 
Nevertheless,  if  any  parent  enters  a  formal  protest  against 
the  giving  of  home-lessons  to  his  child,  they  must  not  be  en- 
forced in  a  Government  school.  The  teacher  should,  however, 
point  out  that  such  a  pupil  will  be  at  a  disadvantage  as  com- 
pared with  the  rest  of  the  class.     It  need  hardly  be  said  that 


HOW   TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT.  8l 

the  tasks  assigned  should  not  be  such  as  would  interfere  with 
home  duties,  and  with  healthful  recreation. 

Subjects  for  Home  Liessons.  —  The  subjects  best 
adapted  for  children's  private  study  are — the  committing  to 
memory  of  speUing,  poetry,  and  tables;  the  learning  of 
such  text-books  on  geography,  history,  and  grammar,  as 
the  school-lessons  are  based  upon ;  composition  exercises ; 
hunting  up  information  on  any  given  topic ;  practice  in  re- 
capitulatory arithmetic ;  writing  out  summaries  of  object 
lessons,  and  so  forth. 

Our  readers  may  accept  it  as  a  general  axiom  that  they 
should  devote  as  much  attention  to  the  planning-out,  explana- 
tion, and  examination  of  their  scholars'  private  study  as  is 
possible.     Most  assuredly  it  will  be  time  well  spent. 

Let  the  elder  children  have  something  to  do  beyond  merely 
learning  by  heart — some  problem  to  solve,  or  information  to 
seek  out  or  composition  to  write — something  that  requires 
thought,  discovery,  and  arrangement.  And  let  there  be  con- 
nection between  the  lessons.  Children  who  are  old  enough 
to  comprehend,  should  have  the  satisfaction  of  feeling  that 
they  are  working  upon  a  plan,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  should 
Jknow  what  is  coming.  No  lesson  should  be  viewed  apart 
from  the  series  to  which  it  belongs.  There  ought  to  be  a 
.scheme  for  each  class,  which  can  be  divided  up  into  weeks, 
due  attention  being  given  to  each  subject. 

The  setting  of  home-lessons  is  generally  better  done  in  the 
morning,  to  provide  against  possible  absences  in  the  afternoon. 
If  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  be  devoted  to  the  thorough  and 
systematic  explanation  of  the  subjects  for  home-study,  it  will 
not  be  time  wasted. 

Examination  and  Correcting  of  Work  Done  at 
Home. — It  is  of  little  use  to  supply  children  with  work  to  be 
done  alone,  unless  that  work  is  carefully  examined.  This  does 
not    mean    that    each    child   must    have    his   lessons    heard 

G 


82  HOW    TO    MAKE    TEACHING    EFFICIENT. 

individually,  though  the  nearer  a  teacher  approaches  to 
individual  examination  the  more  satisfactory  will  her  system 
prove. 

Even  in  a  standard  of  moderate  size,  there  will  be  children 
of  such  varied  attainments  that  it  will  probably  be  found  best 
to  divide  them  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  a  pupil  teacher 
may  take,  while  the  mistress  examines  the  other — some 
of  the  more  advanced  children  being  also  pressed  into  the 
service.  Sums  are  easily  marked  with  the  aid  of  a  book  of 
answers.  Spelling,  tables,  and  catechetical  instruction  can 
be  taken  collectively.  In  schools  where  there  are  large  upper 
standards  and  many  composition  exercises,  and  science  or 
French  papers  to  supervise,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
engage  someone  to  attend  principally  to  this  work 


83 


CHAPTER  vrr. 


Reading. 

W'^0  one  will  deny  the  great  value  and  importance  of 
^  ■  r  reading.  It  opens  the  door  to  human  knowledge, 
and  to  the  thoughts  of  the  best  and  wisest  men  that 
have  ever  lived.  Children  who  learn  early  to  read  with 
pleasure  to  themselves,  possess  an  immense  advantage  over 
those  who  are  still  engaged  in  mastering  technical  diffi- 
culties, when  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age.  The  former  will 
make  rapid  progress,  and  be  readily  interested  in  a  variety  of 
subjects  from  which  the  latter  will  be,  of  necessity,  debarred. 

DiflB.Culty  of  Heading:. — Learning  to  read  English  is  an 
undertaking  which  involves  some  tough  work.  Yet  its  peculiar 
difficulty  is  never  taken  into  account  by  a  certain  class  of 
theorists  who  write  volumes  on  the  subject  of  education,  while, 
in  the  whole  course  of  their  lives,  they  have  never  tried  to  teach 
even  one  little  child  !  They  quite  overlook  the  fact  that  our 
language  literally  bristles  with  inconsistencies,  and  may  be  said 
to  be  made  up  of  irregularities.  If  the  writers  referred  to, 
would  count  up  the  number  of  English  words,  which,  though 
sounded  alike,  are  spelt  quite  differently,  they  would  cease 
comparing  our  children  with  those  on  the  Continent,  and 
wondering  why  it  is  they  cannot  read  fluently  at  as  early 
an  age  as  little  Germans  or  Italians. 

Not  a  Satisfactory  Subject. —  Many  educationists 
regard  reading  as  the  least  satisfactory  of  the  fundamental 
subjects  taught  in  our  Elementary  Schools.  In  the  "  Blue- 
book  "  issued  annually  by  authority,  H.M.  Inspectors  report, 


84  READING. 


as  highly  unsatisfactory,  the  reading  in  the  several  standards, 
but  seem  to  be  unable  to  suggest  a  remedy  : — 

"  I  have  still  only  the  old  tale  to  tell  about  reading,"  writes  one.  *'  It  is 
perhaps  more  fluent,  but  as  far  as  I  can  see — as  unintelligent  as  ever." 
And  another — "  I  have  only  to  reiterate  what  I  have  said  on  previous 
occasions  respecting  the  very  small  amount  of  good  reading  that  one 
meets  with." 

Complaints  ate  in  fact  very  general,  that  reading  continues 
to  be  i-. distinct,  monotonous,  and  "droning,"  and,  above  all, 
totally  devoid  of  any  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  sense : — 

"  I  believe,"  writes  Mr.  Salt  of  Huddersfield,  **  that  in  the  method  of 
teaching  reading,  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  greatest  and  most 
important  advance  in  the  intellectual  training  of  children.  The 
greatest  difficulty  that  besets  the  teaching  of  this  subject  is  that  the 
English  read  may  be  to  the  children  a  dead  language." 

All  teachers  will  endorse  this  last  sentiment,  for  they  are 
well  aware  that  it  is  quite  possible  for  children  to  study 
printed  matter  for  years,  precisely  as  if  the  words  were  written 
in  Latin ;  that  is,  without  discovering  that  the  language  of 
their  books  is  identical  with  the  language  they  ordinarily 
speak. 

Accordingly,  in  considering  the  comimonest  faults  met  with 
in  reading-classes  (as  we  propose  now  to  do),  we  will  en- 
deavour to  give  prominence  to  that  want  of  intelligence  which 
is  such  a  hindrance  to  true  Education  : — 

Indistinct  Utterance. — This  may  be  owing  to  defective 
articulation,  to  mis-u-v^.  of  the  vocal  organs,  to  sheer  careless- 
ness, or  to  a  wrong  pitch  of  the  voice. 

Children  who  have  not  learned  to  pronounce  correctly  the 
various  vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  must  be  drilled  by  the 
teacher  to  use  aright  the  lips,  tongue,  and  teeth  in  forming 
the  letters  and  words.  Scholars  who  have  a  decided  lisp  or 
stammer  should,  if  possible,  be  taught  apart. 

Those  who  have  fallen  into  careless  habits — such  as, 
neglecting    the    terminations,   leaving    out    the   final   g,   or 


READING.  85 


slurring  the  words  themselves,  must  have  abundant  practice 
with  single  words,  each  of  which  should  be  pronounced  in  a 
crisp,  staccato  manner,  and  with  especial  regard  to  the  con- 
sonants. 

The  omission  of  the  aspirate  is  a  very  general  fault. 
Children  addicted  to  it  should  be  required  to  take  a  quick 
respiration  before  a  word  beginning  with  h ;  this  will  enable 
them  to  give  the  correct  sound.  Still,  they  must  not  be 
allowed  to  make  the  ugly  gasp  which  is  not  unknown  in  our 
primary  schools. 

Wrong:  Pitch. — A  vast  amount  of  fairly  good  reading  is 
often  condemned,  simply  because  it  cannot  be  heard.  The 
low  mumbling  tone  in  which  some  children  read  must  be  very 
trying  to  those  who  have  to  judge  of  their  proficiency,  and 
teachers  should  take  pains  to  train  them  to  read  so  that  they 
can  be  clearly  heard  by  the  whole  class.  They  should  begin 
each  paragraph  in  a  voice  pitched  fairly  high,  and  must  be 
stopped,  again  and  again,  when  they  begin  to  mutter. 

In  correcting  this  irritating  defect,  it  is  sometimes  found  or 
service  to  make  a  scholar  run  up  the  scale  to  fa,  and  then 
begin  to  speak  on  that  note,  with  the  mouth  well  opened. 

Hesitation. — The  source  of  this  fault  is  not  far  to  seek. 
It  results  from  the  children's  ignorance  of  the  words,  and 
ought  to  have  entirely  disappeared  before  they  leave  the  third 
standard.  The  steady  extension  of  their  vocabulary,  by  a 
persevering  use  of  well-chosen  lists  of  words,  is  the  remedy 
here.  The  children  thus  become  rapidly  familiar  with  every 
term  they  are  hkely  to  meet  with,  and  so  learn  to  read  in  a 
fluent  and  agreeable  manner.  Constant  practice  in  words  al- 
ready known,  and  the  continual  acquisition  of  new  ones,  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  method  of  overcoming  the  mechanical 
difficulty  of  reading  ;  this  must  last  as  long  as  the  words  them- 
selves continue  to  give  the  children  trouble,  and  oblige  them 
to  be  constantly  thinking  how  they  can  so  pronounce  them  as 
to  escape  blame. 


86  READING. 


Monotonous  Beading. — A  tame  monotony,  a  droning, 
drawling  style  can  only  be  removed  by  cultivating  the  intelli- 
gence of  young  readers,  and  leading  them  to  comprehend 
the  meaning  of  the  words  they  utter.  Though  so  common  a 
fault,  it  is  a  most  unnatural  one,  as  we  shall  proceed  to 
shew : — 

To  begin  with,  is  it  not  true  that  we  are  all  apt  to  forget  that 
the  art  of  reading  is  but  the  crowning  point  of  much  that  the 
child  has  previously  learnt  ?  Has  he  not  already  acquired  the 
difficult  power  of  speech ;  and  so  acquired  it,  that  there  is  really 
little  left  to  desire  in  his  accent  and  expression,  or  the  modula- 
tions of  his  voice  ?  And  would  it  not  be  an  absurdity  to 
suppose  that,  when  the  time  comes  for  him  to  learn  to  read 
from  printed  signs,  he  requires  to  be  trained  in  some  new  way 
of  speaking  ?  Yet,  unfortunately,  this  is  what  is  too  often 
attempted.  Any  truth  and  beauty  of  utterance  which  the  child 
possesses  are  ignored,  and  a  new  and  painfully  ugly  manner  of 
speech  is  laboriously  substituted.  The  long  preparation  he  has 
undergone,  and  the  power  of  expression  he  has  gained,  count 
for  nothing;  all  is  changed  for  the  monotonous,  artificial, 
almost  agonising  pronunciation  to  be  heard  in  so  many  school- 
rooms. 

Kemedy  for  a  Monotonous  Style.— The  above  re- 
marks furnish  us  with  the  key  to  expressive  reading.  The  rule 
that  a  child  ought  to  read  much  as  he  speaks,  must  be  steadily 
kept  in  view ;  and  his  instructor  must  realise  that  teaching 
him  to  read,  means  simply  teaching  him  to  pronounce  printed 
words,  precisely  as  he  has  hitherto  given  utterance  to  his 
thoughts  by  means  of  spoken  words. 

Beading  with  Intelligence. — It  is  obvious  that  if 
reading  is  to  be  expressive,  it  must  be  intelligent.  Unless 
children  take  in  the  sense  of  what  they  read,  how  can  they 
have  any  beauty  of  intonation  ?  The  sound  should  convey 
the  sense.      It  is,  then,  of   the   utmost   importance  that  the 


READING.  87 


meaning   should  be  grasped  ;    nor  can  children  be  cured  of 
their  dull,  wearisome  monotone  till  this  is  the  case. 

Do  Children  Comprehend  ? — The  question  naturally 
arises— How  far  do  children  comprehend  the  sense  of  the 
printed  words  they  repeat  ?  Experience  seems  to  prove  that 
the  younger  children,  in  elementary  schools,  seldom  so  much  as 
realise  that  they  are  intended  to  understand  what  they  read* 
To  the  ordinary  child  of  seven  or  eight,  the  reading-lesson 
appears  to  be  merely  the  deciphering  of  a  succession  of 
hieroglyphics,  to  which  he  is  expected  to  give  the  correct 
•sound. 

Our  first  duty,  then,  is  to  impress  upon  young  scholars 
the  reason  of  their  learning  to  read.  They  must  be  told, 
in  plain  terms,  that  the  object  of  reading  is  to  gain  ideas — 
to  increase  their  stock  of  information  ;  that  the  book  should 
speak  to  them — somewhat  as  the  human  voice  does — telling 
something  unknown  to  them  before,  and  that  if  they  gain  no 
thoughts  or  ideas,  they  miss  the  primary  end  and  object  of 
reading. 

It  is,  doubtless,  difficult  at  first  to  get  a  child  to  understand 
what  these  (to  him)  cabalistic  signs  stand  for ;  but  it  must  be 
done,  if  we  are  to  have  a  well-grounded  hope  that  we  are 
educating  those  who  are  entrusted  to  us. 

An  attempt  to  grapple  with  the  difiB.culty.— The 

Society  which  issues  this  book  has  recently  made  an  attempt 
to  facilitate  the  teaching  of  intelligent  as  well  as  fluent 
reading.  The  mode  adopted  is  to  arrange  words  in  certain 
groups,  in  such  a  way  as  to  offer  the  minimum  of  difficulty  to 
the  learner.  The  words,  after  careful  classification,  are  printed 
on  sheets,  in  bold  type  which  can  be  seen  by  a  class  of  fifty  or 
sixty  children  at  the  same  moment.  These  printed  lists^  or 
schedules  as  they  are  called,  are  of  two  kinds;  they  consist  of  :^ 

(i)  Words  classified  according  to  their  signification. 

(2)  Words  arranged  in  alphabetical  sequence. 


88  READING. 


(a)  Classified  Lists. — Of  course,  the  c/^ssyf^^  schedules 
are  the  most  valuable,  as  they  are  addressed  to  the  mind  o£ 
the  child,  and  designed  to  develop  his  intelligence.  In  them 
he  finds  words  placed  together  that  have  some  affinity  to  each 
other — as  naval  terms,  military  terms,  geographical  and 
commercial  terms. 

A  strange  word  is  introduced  to  the  child's  notice,  but  it  is 
in  company  with  others  to  which  it  has  a  family  likeness; 
and  (if  practicable)  a  picture  or  representation  of  what  the 
word  stands  for,  is  likewise  shewn.  Accordingly,  the  new 
word  remains  no  longer  a  strange  and  mystic  sign.  It  at 
once  becomes  an  acquaintance ;  and — ere  the  lesson  has  been 
three  or  four  times  repeated — it  has  turned  into  a  friends 
Let  us  take  as  an  example  the  word  "  Sentry."  To  a  child 
of  eight  or  nine  who  met  with  it  casually,  it  would  appear  a 
mere  assemblage  of  printed  signs ;  but,  learned  from  a 
classified  list  in  connection  with  other  military  terms — 
and  made  vivid  and  lifelike  by  the  help  of  a  good  illustration  — 
the  combination  of  letters  "S-e-n-t-r-y"  will  ever  after  call  up 
before  the  mind  of  that  child  the  vision  of  a  lonely  soldier 
pacing  to  and  fro — keeping  watch,  perhaps  through  the  dark 
silent  night,  while  others  sleep.  By  this  expedient,  children 
are  given  those  true  impressions  which  remain  indelibly 
graven  on  the  mind. 

Words  that  have  an  abstract  signification  are  so  arranged 
that  a  child  can  hardly  help  catching  some  idea  of  their 
meaning,  from  the  combination  in  which  he  finds  them. 

(b)  Alphabetical  Lists.— Were  our  language  like  any 
other  European  tongue,  alphabetically-arranged  lists  of  words 
would  be  unnecessary  and  undesirable;  but,  as  we  have  said 
before,  the  difficulties  of  EngHsh  to  a  child  are  innumerable,  and^ 
therefore,  it  is  true  wisdom  to  let  him  encounter  them  one  or 
two  at  a  time.  Quite  young  children  readily  gain  fluency  by 
the  system  we  advise,  while  with  older  scholars  the  Schedules 
facilitate  word-building.     From  the  manner  of  their  arrange- 


READING. 


ment,  it  is  often  exceedingly  easy  to  perceive  how  adjectives- 
and  adverbs,  nouns  or  verbs,  are  built  up  from  some  root- 
word. 

Zealous  teachers  may  prepare  such  lists  of  words  for  them- 
selves. Those  who  have  not  tried  the  plan  here  recommended,, 
can  have  no  idea  how  quickly  children  may  thus  be  taught  ta 
read  with  ease,  expression,  and  intelligence.  It  may  be  objected 
that  the  system  will  be  found  rather  hard  and  dry  by  the- 
younger  scholars.  Experience  has,  however,  proved  that  this- 
is  far  from  being  the  case.  If  given  with  spirit  and  energy,, 
the  lesson  is  one  of  the  favourites,  and  the  easier  reading- 
sheets  are  regarded  quite  as  friends  by  the  little  folks. 

How  to  use  the  Classified  Lists  for  a  Spelling: 
Liesson. — The  children  being  so  placed  that  all  can  see 
the  large  sheet  (it  is  better  to  bring  the  class  out  for  this- 
exercise),  the  teacher  pronounces  the  first  word  in  a  distinct,, 
clear  tone;  the  children  repeat  it  after  her,  and  then  spell 
the  word  simultaneously  two  or  three  times,  pronouncing: 
the  whole  word  after  each  time  of  spelling  it.  The  next, 
word  is  then  taken  in  the  same  manner.  When  the  sheet 
has  been  gone  through,  the  children  may  be  allowed  to  read 
it  again  (without  stopping  to  spell),  either  singly  or  simul- 
taneously, and  as  briskly  as  they  can.  Pointing  is  only 
necessary  in  the  lower  classes ;  it  is  best  for  the  scholars 
to  learn  to  keep  the  place  by  the  eye,  each  child  holding 
himself  in  readiness  to  pick  up  instantly  the  word  that  falls, 
to  him. 

When  the  words  can  be  pronounced  and  spelt  with  a. 
fair  amount  of  accuracy,  the  teacher  should  exert  her 
utmost  ingenuity  to  bring  the  ideas  they  represent  clearly 
and  forcibly  before  the  scholars.  It  is  here  especially  that  a. 
good  teacher  will  shine.  By  illustration  and  description,  by 
comparison,  and  by  constant  questioning,  she  will  fix  in  the- 
pupils'  minds  the  correct  thought  which  should  be  associated 


go  READING. 


with  the  word.  Thus  she  will  enlarge  their  vocabulary 
and  widen  their  intelligence,  day  by  day,  in  a  way  delightful 
to  themselves,  and  therefore  eminently  fitted  to  arouse  a 
love  of  knowledge  and  a  desire  for  self-improvement.  Each 
subject  should  be  gone  through,  with  copious  explana- 
tions, more  than  once,  and  then  recapitulated  from  time  to 
time  lest  it  shp  from  the  child's  treacherous  memory.  The 
mechanical  labour  of  spelling  and  pronunciation  may  be 
much  lightened,  by  making  the  children  learn  small-print 
lists  of  classified  words  at  home. 

It  is  indispensable  to  success  that  any  such  Schedules  should 
l)e  used  daily  and  systematically,  and  somewhat  in  the  way  de- 
scribed above.  But,  to  ingenious  and  skilful  teachers,  other 
modes  will,  no  doubt,  suggest  themselves.  Let  them  more 
particularly  remember,  that  they  must  always  give  the  correct 
pronunciation  before  the  child  is  allowed  to  read  or  spell  a 
word.     "  First  pronounce,  then  spell,"  must  be  the  rule."^ 


General   Suggestions  for  securing  Good 
Reading. 

Having  now  noticed  the  principal  faults  which  children  are 
apt  to  make,  and  pointed  out  that  a  cure  is  to  be  found  in 
.giving  them  a  more  comprehensive  grasp  of  the  subject,  we 
will  go  on  to  offer  a  few  additional  hints — attention  to  which 
"will  promote  good  reading  in  all  the  standards  : — 

(i)  Emphasis. — Emphasis  is  the  prominence  given  to 
certain  words.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  let  a  strong  emphasis  be 
placed  on  some  words,  provided  that  the  sense  sanctions  it. 
It  makes  the  meaning  clear,  and  gives  vigour  and  variety  to  the 
reading.    We  all  use  far  more  emphasis  in  conversation  than 

*N.B. — The  Alphabetical  Lists  being  intended  to  drill  the  children  in  pronunciation  and 
■spelling  only,  no  explanation  of  the  words  should,  as  a  rule,  be  attempted.  It  is  all  but  use- 
less to  try  to  give  the  signification  of  isolated  words  and  terms ;  and  even  if  the  endeavour 
be  successful,  little  is  done  by  this  means  to  cultivate  the  child's  understanding. 


READING.  gi 


we  are  aware  of,  and  its  absence  renders  reading  very  tame 
and  dull. 

Where  is  the  stress  to  be  laid  P — If  the  child  can  be  trained 
to  receive  ideas  through  the  printed  words,  he  will  instinctively 
put  the  emphasis  in  the  right  place.  Still,  with  younger  chil- 
dren, it  is  sometimes  a  help  to  tell  them  to  lay  stress,  usually, 
on  the  nouns  and  verbs,  and  to  pass  quickly  over  smaller 
words.  Of  course,  however,  there  are  numerous  exceptions  to 
this  rule.  When  the  same  word  is  repeated,  it  should  also  be 
accentuated;  as — Help!  Help!  Help! 

It  is  allowable,  at  first,  to  give  a  few  similar  hints  to  the 
pupils,  although  it  cannot  be  reckoned  as  the  highest  teaching ; 
for  all  expression  ought  to  be  the  natural  outcome  of  the 
child's  appreciation  of  the  sense  of  what  he  reads. 

(2)  Ascertain  that  the  Printed  Words  are  con- 
veying Ideas  to  the  Children's  Minds. — To  make 
sure  of  this,  often  tell  them  to  close  books  and  give  you,  in 
their  own  words,  a  summary  of  what  they  have  been  reading* 
Question  little  children  briskly  after  the  following  fashion : — 

The  passage  being — "  Three  little  boys  were  in  a  boat,  and  as  they  did  not 
know  how  to  row,  the  tide  carried  them  out  to  sea."  Question  some- 
what as  follows  : — Where  were  the  boys  ?  How  many  were  there  >* 
Why  were  they  carried  out  to  sea  ?     What  carried  them  out  ? 

(3)  Cultivate  the  proper  Inflexion. — Inflexion  means 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  voice.  The  more  children  learn  to 
read  as  they  speak,  the  more  correct  and  appropriate 
will  be  their  modulation.  It  is  a  help  to  right  inflexion 
if  the  scholars  are  made  to  begin  every  sentence  in  a  wel'- 
pitched  and  distinct  tone.  This  also  guards  against  the  com- 
mon trick  of  mumbling  the  opening  words.  The  voice  must 
be  raised  before  a  note  of  interrogation  if  the  answer  is  to  be 
""Yes"  or  "No";  also  slightly  in  reading  a  quotation.  It 
should  be  lowered  at  a  full  stop,  and  in  parenthetical 
sentences. 


92  READING. 


(4)  Attend  to  Pauses. — Teach  the  younger  children  ta 
mind  their  stops,  and  the  elder  ones,  in  addition  to  this,  to 
make  rhetorical  pauses  in  the  right  places.  This  is  essential 
to  expressive  reading.  It  also  enables  the  reader  to  take 
breath,  and  to  glance  onward,  so  that  his  eye  may  be  in 
advance  of  his  voice. 

(5)  Take  Care  that  your  Pupils  Bead  at  a 
Steady,  "Uniform  Rate. — No  sooner  do  children  over- 
come the  mechanical  difficulties  of  learning  to  read,  than  their 
tendency  is  to  read  too  fast.  Those  who  begin  by  drawling^ 
end  by  gabbling,  unless  care  is  exercised  to  make  them 
observe  a  moderate  pace.  Without  altogether  endorsing  the: 
old  adage,  which  runs  : — 

**  Learn  to  read  slowly,  and  all  other  graces 
Will  quickly  follow  in  their  proper  places" — 

we  must  own  that,  to  race  over  reading  totally  deprives  it 
of  all  beauty  and  melody. 

(N.B. — The  subject  of  expression^  including  emphasis,  pitch, 
of  voice,  pause,  and  inflexion,  will  be  found  more  fully  treated 
of  under  the  head  of  Elocution.) 

(6)  Never  allow  Children  to  Point  to  the  Words 
in  a  Sentence. — Even  in  the  "Infant"  classes  childrert 
must  be  trained  to  keep  their  place  without  the  use  of  a  pointer ; 
otherwise  they  will  acquire  a  sing-song  drawl  from  the  first* 
Teach  them  to  say — **  The  cat  saw  a  rat;  "  not  **  The-cat-saw- 
a-rat."  The  jerking  howl  of  so  many  first-standard  children 
is,  in  a  great  degree,  caused  by  the  custom  of  pointing ;  for  this 
encourages  the  habit  of  bringing  out  the  words  one  by  one> 
instead  of  reading  them  in  clauses. 

(7)  Prepare  for  the  Reading  Lesson.— The  teacher 
should  not,  as  a  rule,  plunge  into  a  reading  lesson,  but  have 
a  little  talk  about  it  first.     If  it  is  a  chapter  of  some  work 


READING.  93 


which  the  class  is  reading  consecutively,  questions  should  be 
asked  on  what  has  gone  before,  and  it  should  be  ascertained 
that  the  children  know  something  of  what  they  are  going 
to  read  about.  If  the  lesson  is  from  an  ordinary  class-reader, 
they  may  be  told  a  little  about  the  subject. 

(8)  The  Management  of  the  Breath.— Instruct  the 
children  to  take  a  deep  breath  before  beginning  a  passage,  so 
as  to  start  with  a  good  supply.  They  should  be  trained  never 
to  draw  breath  in  the  middle  of  a  clause,  but  always  at  a  full 
stop,  semi-colon,  comma  or  rhetorical  pause — if  necessary. 

(9)  Never  let  Children  Read  Carelessly.— If  they 
do  not  know  a  word,  let  them  neither  guess  at  it  nor  spell  it, 
but  instruct  them  to  pronounce  the  first  syllable  as  well  as  they 
can,  and  then  go  on  quickly  to  the  next.  Unless  trained  to 
act  thus,  children  will  stop  at  every  long  word  and  remain 
staring  at  it  in  a  hopeless  sort  of  way,  instead  of  taking  it 
syllable  by  syllable.  Take  care  that  children  do  not  omit 
or  mis-call  the  small  words  in  a  sentence. 

(10)  Attend  to  the  Position  of  the  Class. — If  the 

•children  stand  as  is  generally  considered  best,  the  feet  should 
be  either  in  the  first  position,  or — as  some  authorities  recom- 
mend— the  right  foot  planted  on  the  floor  a  little  in  advance 
of  the  left ;  probably  this  gives  a  firmer  balance.  The  shoulders 
should  be  thrown  back,  the  head  kept  well  up.  The  book 
must  be  held  upon  the  left  hand — the  right  hand  by  the  side, 
ready  to  turn  over  the  pages. 

(11)  Let  your  own  Position  be  Appropriate. — It 

is  allowable  for  the  teacher  to  sit  during  a  reading  lesson ;  but 
she  should  sit  on  the  alert  and  not  at  ease.  If  she  holds  the  book 
in  her  hand,  she  should  look  at  it  as  little  as  possible.  An 
experienced  teacher  dispenses  with  a  book,  and  lets  the 
children  apprize  her  of  verbal  mistakes  by  holding  up  hands, 


94  READING. 


or  she  sets  a  monitor  to  do  so.  Meanwhile  her  own  eyes  are 
fixed  on  the  class — not  on  the  child  reading,  but  on  the  whole 
class.  She  sees  that  one  has  lost  his  place,  another  is  looking 
at  the  pictures  in  the  book,  a  third  is  playing  with  some- 
thing in  his  pocket.  But  soon — finding  that  nothing  escapes 
their  teacher's  watchful  eye — all  become  steadily  attentive. 


Class   Reading-Books. 

Under  the  present  system  of  school  inspection,  the  readers 
must  be  thoroughly  known — a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty 
both  for  the  teacher  and  the  taught. 

In  the  second  and  third  standards,  the  test-passage  for 
writing  is  dictated  from  one  of  the  readers,  and  some- 
Inspectors  still  examine  by  means  of  the  reading-books  in 
all  the  standards. 

How  the  Headers  must  be  known.— To  get  up  a 

reading-book  thoroughly  is  a  hard  task,  and  yet  cannot  be 
considered  as  real  education.  Still,  it  must  be  done;  the 
question  is — how  ? 

The  children  must  know  the  book  in  three  ways : — 

(i)  They  must  know  the  words  so  as  to  read  them  fluently^ 

(2)  They  must  know  them  so  as  to  spell  them  correctly. 

(3)  They  must  know  the  sense  so  as  to  read  with  expression, 
and  intelligence. 

Those  who  have  been  well  exercised  in  the  spelling-sheets^ 
will  find  little  difficulty  in  fulfilling  the  first  two  conditions.  If 
any  words  should  occur  in  the  '*  readers"  not  to  be  found  on  the 
Schedules — such  as  geographical  terms,  historical  names,  etc.. 
— the  teacher  should  write  them  out,  and  make  a  sufficient: 
number  of  copies,  by  means  of  a  copying  machine,  for  the 
use  of  the  class.  These  should  be  learned  at  home  by  the 
pupils,  as  early  in  the  year  as  possible  ;  and,  until  they  can  be: 
both  read  and  spelt  with  tolerable  accuracy,  the  children 
should  not  be  permitted  to  read  the  class-books. 


READING.  95 


Readers  should  not  be  too  often  read.— It  will 
usually  be  found  better  to  defer  the  study  of  the  class  reading- 
books,  until  within  a  few  months  of  the  examination.  If  the 
first  part  of  the  year  is  devoted  to  the  diligent  study  of  read"T)g- 
sheets,  varied  by  books  of  a  miscellaneous  description — every 
word  and  name  of  extra  difficulty  in  the  class-readers  being 
learnt  meanwhile— the  children  will  do  far  better  at  the  in- 
spection. Their  reading  will  be  more  fresh  and  life-like,  than 
if  (for  twelve  months)  they  have  been  nauseated  with  two  or 
three  books,  till  they  hate  the  sight  of  them. 

Besides,  in  Standard  IV.  and  upwards,  the  children  will 
have,  probably,  to  encounter  "  unseen  readers,"  and  unless 
they  are  thoroughly  exercised  on  some  comprehensive  system^ 
they  will  be  liable  to  failure. 

The  Class-books  must  be  read  with  Intelligence, 

— This  third  condition  is  not  so  easily  disposed  of  as  the  two- 
preceding  ones. 

We  have  already  dealt  with  the  matter  of  expression  ;  and 
have  also  given  such  advice  as  will  lead  to  the  meanings  of 
words  being  intelligently  and  thoroughly  known.  This,  however, 
is  not  all  that  is  required.  The  children  must  likewise  be  able 
to  give  the  meanings  of  clauses  and  sentences.  If  they  have 
learnt  what  the  words  signify,  a  little  practice  will  make 
them  proficient  in  this.  But  they  must  have  this  practice, 
for  otherwise,  though  they  may  know  what  is  meant,  they 
will  be  unable  to  express  their  meaning  in  plain,  appropriate, 
and  simple  language  —  their  own  language,  not  dictionary  terms?- 
nor  those  sometimes  printed  at  the  beginning  of  the  reading- 
lesson.  They  should  be  taught  to  give  good  answers  in  a 
pleasant  manner — i.e.,  brightly,  and  with  clear  intonation. 

Especial  pains  must  be  taken  that  the  children  pronounce 
geographical  terms  right  from  the  outset.  They  should  not 
be  allowed  to  guess  at  the  pronunciation. 

A  Heading  Lesson. — A  lesson  from  a  class-reader  may 
be  given  in  the  second  standard  as  follows : — 


96  READING. 


The  lesson  is  prefaced  by  a  few  words  about  the  subject, 
and  some  Hvely  questioning  addressed  principally  to  the  lazy, 
inattentive  scholars. 

The  teacher  may  then  read  the  first  paragraph  slowly 
and  carefully — but  with  spirit,  and  as  naturally  as  possible. 
She  next  ascertains  if  the  children  understand  what  has  been 
read — whether  the  thought  is  in  their  minds.  If  not,  the  passage 
must  be  put  into  simpler  words,  till  there  is  a  well-grounded 
Jiope  that  their  intelligence  has  been  reached. 

The  children  next  repeat  the  passage  simultaneously — and 
several  times  if  necessary,  especially  any  hard  phrase — until 
they  manage  to  read  it  much  as  they  would  speak  it. 

The  same  paragraph  may  now  be  read  individually  by  a 
few  of  the  children — not  in  turn,  but  picked  out  here  and  there 
at  the  teacher's  discretion — all  the  rest  holding  themselves  in 
readiness  to  take  up  the  thread  instantly.  Very  indifferent 
readers  should  not  be  permitted  to  try  the  patience  of  the 
class  by  individual  reading.  They  may  occasionally  have 
encouragement  by  being  allowed  to  repeat  a  few  lines  just 
read  by  one  of  the  most  advanced  scholars ;  but  are  usually 
best  taken  alone  afterwards.  It  is  often  advisable  to  make\ 
two  or  three  pupils  read  together,  instead  of  the  whole  class. 

Lastly,  more  questions  should  be  asked,  in  order  that,  by 
iiieans  of  the  children's  answers,  the  full  meaning  of  the 
passage  may  be  brought  out. 

The  next  paragraph  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  chapter,  care  being  taken  that 
the  children  do  not  linger,  but  press  on  rapidly  and  steadily. 

As  the  examination  approaches,  much  attention  must  be 
paid  to  individual  reading.  The  teacher  will  do  well,  at  odd 
moments  (or  during  certain  lessons)  to  call  up  children  singly, 
and  make  each  stand  beside  her  to  read  a  paragraph,  chosen 
at  random.  The  very  fact  of  being  asked  by  the  Inspector 
to  read  out  of  his  place  in  class,  will  often  throw  a  nervous 
child  off  his  balance. 

The  above  is  a  simple  and  effectual  way  of  preparing  first 


READING.  97 


and  second  standard  children  for  examination;  but,  as  it  is  not 
likely  to  foster  a  love  for  literature,  let  it  be  observed  that 
these  low  standards  should  be  provided  with  interesting 
reading-cards  and  books,  which  they  may  be  allowed  to  go 
through  in  a  more  natural  manner — the  teacher  by  simple 
■explanations  keeping  up  their  interest  throughout. 

Beading  in  the  Upper  Standards.— In  addition  to 
regular,  continual  exercise  in  spelling,  and  in  learning  meanings 
of  classified  words — of  which  there  can  hardly  be  too  much  up 
to  the  sixth  standard — and  besides  careful  preparation  in  the 
readers,  children  should  always  have  a  set  of  extra  books  on 
hand,  which  they  may  be  permitted  to  read  at  least  once  a 
week,  in  a  manner  likely  to  interest  them.  Books  of  natural 
history,  travels,  easy  histories  and  biographies,  and  similar 
works,  are  to  be  greatly  recommended. 

The  teacher  must  labour  continually  to  improve  the  mode 
of  reading — intonation,  accuracy,  etc. — and  should  require 
"what  is  read  to  be  reproduced  in  some  form  or  other. 

Sometimes  the  elder  children  have  a  tendency  to  slur 
■over  and  mis-call  very  easy  words.  This  fault  must  be 
•corrected,  and  no  carelessness  of  any  kind  overlooked. 
Poetry  of  a  narrative  and  descriptive  kind  ought  to  be  often 
read ;  since  nothing  so  improves  the  style  and  taste,  as 
•constant  practice  in  reading  or  reciting  verse.  Great  care 
is,  nevertheless,  needed,  lest  the  jingling  of  the  rhymes  tend 
to  produce  in  young  readers  a  sing-song  intonation;  and  this 
l)ranch  of  "  elocution  "  should  not  be  entrusted  to  an  inex- 
perienced teacher.  All  the  poetry  in  the  school  readers  should 
be  taught  and  explained  with  great  care ;  not  learned  by  heart, 
but  read  with  feeling  and  expression,  and  every  passage 
understood ;  something  should  also  be  known  about  the 
author  of  the  poem.  Historical  and  geographical  allusions 
must  likewise  be  thoroughly  dealt  with. 

In  reading  poetry,  children  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  drop  the 
-voice  at  the  end  of  a  Hne,  unless  there  is  a  full-stop.    The  voice 

II 


98  READING. 


must  be  sustained ;  although  a  slight — almost  imperceptible — 
pause  must  be  made  at  the  end  of  each  line  to  mark  the- 
metre. 

Class  Libraries. — To  encourage  a  taste  for  good  readings 
there  should  be,  in  each  class,  a  few  well-chosen  books — to  lend. 
This  often  answers  better  than  having  a  general  library  for  the 
whole  school.  Of  course,  classes  can  interchange  books  at 
the  end  of  every  three  or  six  months.  The  books  should  be 
selected  with  a  view  to  combine  instruction  with  recreation,, 
and  consist  of  such  works  as  would  be  likely  to  attract 
the  young.  Records  of  travel  and  adventure,  or  gallant  deeds,, 
biography,  science,  and  historical  tales,  are  all  appropriate- 
Caution  must  be  used  in  lending  books  to  girls  of  a  very  poor 
class,  lest  they  neglect  home-duties.  The  same  objection 
does  not  hold  good  with  boys,  but  loan-books  should  gene- 
rally be  withheld  from  all  scholars  whose  home-lessons  are 
not  properly  prepared.  The  library  books  might,  with  great, 
advantage,  be  changed  on  Friday  afternoons,  as  this  would 
probably  have  the  effect  of  improving  the  generally  uncertain 
attendance  on  that  day. 


99 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Spelling. 

V  Vj  I  *HAT  teacher  does  not  sigh  as  she  thinks  of  this 
^I^Jlf  branch  of  an  English  education — presenting,  as  it 
does,  such  well-nigh  insurmountable  difficulties  to 
the  young  scholars  of  the  nation — difficulties  which  confront 
them  on  the  very  threshold  of  the  temple  of  learning  ? 

The  DifiB.culties  of  English  Spelling. — The  pronun- 
ciation of  the  English  language  has  neither  rules  nor  principles ; 
nor  has  its  orthography  any.  Both  are  full  of  absurdities 
and  inconsistencies.  It  has  been  well  said  by  Max  Miiller: — 
"  English  spelling  is  a  national  misfortune.  Everything 
English  children  are  expected  to  learn  concerning  spelling,  is 
irrational.  One  rule  contradicts  the  other,  and  each  statement 
has  to  be  accepted  simply  on  authority,  and  with  a  complete 
disregard  of  all  those  rational  instincts  which  lie  dormant  in  a 
child,  and  which  ought  to  be  awakened  by  every  kind  of 
healthy  exercise."  Again,  a  competent  authority  on  educa- 
tion. Sir  C.  E.  Trevelyan,  has  asserted,  "  The  English 
system  of  spelling  (it  cannot  be  called  orthography)  is  a 
labyrinth,  a  chaos,  an  absurdity."  These  heavy  indictments 
against  our  mother-tongue  are,  alas !  too  true,  and  the 
consequences  are — much  waste  of  time  in  school,  a  heavy 
drain  on  the  energy  and  patience  of  teachers,  and  a  serious 
drawback  to  the  advance  in  after-life  of  many  otherwise  well- 
informed  young  people  of  both  sexes. 

Grammarians  have  ascertained  that  there  are  twenty-six 
letters  in  our  language  to  do  the  work  of — and  represent  to  the 


lOO  SPELLING. 


eye — forty-five  sounds ;   also  that  six  of  the  vowel  sounds  are 
written   in   seventy-five   difterent   ways.      Then,   again,   the 
names  of  our  letters  are  scarcely  any  help  to  the  spelling  of  a 
word.     How  should  such  a  combination  of  elements  as — 
o,  yu,  jee,  aitch,  tee,  represent  ought^ 

ee,  wy,  ee,  ess,  „  eyes^ 

tee,  aitch,  eye,  jee,  aitch,  ess,  ,,  thighs? 

These  general  statements  are  sufficient  to  show  that  our 
alphabet,  as  at  present  constituted,  is  inconsistent,  deficient 
and  erroneous. 

But,  in  addition  to  such  a  faulty  alphabet,  there  are  otlier 
vagaries  to  be  met  with  in  syllables  and  words,  which  much 
increase  the  difficulty  of  teaching  correct  spelling.  Compare 
such  words  as  fulfil  fulfilled,  referred  differed,  hotter  neater, 
moving,  penned  weaned,  peaceable  lovable — with  full  and  fill, 
refer,  differ,  hot,  neat,  move,  pen,  wean,  peace,  love.  Then 
again,  there  are  words  like  proceed  and  precede ;  relieve 
receive  and  bereave,  and  numerous  others  which  experienced 
teachers  can  quote  as  being  the  cause  of  endless  trouble  to  a 
large  proportion  cf  their  scholars.  What  can  be  said  of  such 
groups  of  contradictions  as  plough,  chough,  cough,  thorough, 
through,  rough,  dough,  hough,  though,  lough  and  bough, 
when  put  severally  side  by  side  with  now,  puff,  scoff,  burrow, 
threw,  stuff,  go,  muff,  low,  lock,  and  bow  ?  Pages  full  of 
similar  anomalies  might  be  given,  but  those  which  have 
been  mentioned  go  to  prove  that  even  to  us  "Who  are  to 
the  manner  born,"  the  orthography  of  the  English  language 
is  so  irregular  and  complicated,  that  most  instructors  will 
agree  with  Professor  Meiklejohn,  when  he  declares  that  *♦  It  is 
more  difficult  to  teach  spelling,  than  it  is  to  drive  a  herd 
of  young  pigs  to  market  along  an  unfenced  road,  and  without 
the  aid  of  a  dog." 

The  actual  state  of  the  case  is  that  the  child  has  to  make  a 
separate  study  of  each  word.  He  must  give  his  whole  attention 
to  it,  and  cherish  no  delusive  hope  that  the  spelHng  of 
another  word  will  be  of  any  help  to  him.     To  use  his  reason 


SPELLING.  lOT 


or  intelligence  in  spelling — to  argue  that  because  a  certain  word 
follows  a  certain  notation,  therefore  another  must  be  rendered 
in  a  similar  manner,  would  be  fatal  to  success. 

No  Royal  Road  to  Spelling. — Some  theorists  propose 
that  no  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  formal  teaching  of 
spelling  until  the  child  has  learnt  to  read  with  fluency,  and 
can  copy  from  print  easily  and  correctly.  They  assert  that 
when  his  eyes  have  thus  become  accustomed  to  the  forms  of 
the  words,  he  will  not  experience  much  difficulty  in  spelling 
them.  This  is  termed  a  natural  and  rational  mode  of 
**  learning  to  spell."  Other  authorities  in  the  educational 
world,  recommend  the  committing  to  memory  of  a  number  of 
rules  for  forming  terminations,  and  for  word-building. 

These,  and  other  similar  systems  may  ''  look  well  on  paper," 
but  when  teachers  try  to  put  them  in  practice,  they  find 
themselves  baffled  at  every  step,  and  driven  to  the  con- 
clusion that — The  royal  road  to  correct  spelling  has  yet  to  be 
discovered. 

Stern  experience  proves,  that  not  ten  per  cent,  of  the  children 
in  a  class  learn  to  spell  by  dihgent  and  extensive  reading. 
They  simply  do  not  notice  the  orthography  of  the  words 
sufficiently  to  reproduce  them  rightly  in  manuscript.  The 
Professor  we  quote  from  above,  cites  the  case  of  a  youth  (one 
of  the  ablest  boys  he  ever  taught)  who,  at  eighteen,  spelt 
door — d-o-r-e  ;  yet  "he  was  an  omniverous  and  steady  reader, 
and  more  given  to  literature  than  ninety-nine  boys  out  of 
every  hundred." 

Then,  with  regard  to  the  rules  on  which  some  pin  their  faith 
— they  are  far  too  intricate  for  little  children.  Moreover, 
there  are  not  really  more  than  half-a-dozen  which  are  of  the 
slightest  service.  The  usefulness  of  the  remainder  is  neutral- 
ised by  a  multitude  of  exceptions  to  the  rule  given ;  for  to 
remember  these  exceptions  is  actually  a  greater  strain  on  the 
memory  than  would  be  involved  by  learning  the  entire  list 
of  words  to  which  the  rule  refers.  : 


102  SPELLING. 


Good  Spelling  Indispensable.  —  Teachers  cannot 
afford  to  pay  much  attention  to  those  who  deprecate  the 
time  and  labour  expended  in  teaching  children  to  spell,  and  who 
advise  that  studies  of  more  importance  should  be  substituted. 
All  are  agreed  about  the  "pity  of  it,"  yet,  until  some  phonetic 
system  is  universally  adopted,  there  would  seem  to  be  no 
remedy.  For,  although  to  spell  correctly  is  not  reckoned  any 
extraordinary  attainment,  yet  to  spell  wrongly  is  considered 
a  disgrace.  Consequently,  spelling  cannot  be  made  of  too  much 
importance,  especially  when  we  know  what  is  likely  to  be 
the  fate  of  a  child  who  is  weak  in  this  department  of  rudi- 
mentary education.  In  all  probabihty,  he  will  fail  at 
examinations,  be  ridiculed  through  life,  and  remain  entirely 
ineligible  for  any  post  of  honour.  Plainly,  then,  every  child 
committed  to  our  care  must  be  taught  to  spell,  and  to  spell 
well.     How  shall  this  be  achieved  ? 

Well! — leaving  theories  out  of  the  question — we  believe 
that  all  who  have  to  teach  spelling  will  agree  that  no  method 
can  be  successful  which  does  not  involve  hard  and  unremitting 
work,  extending  over  months  if  not  years.  In  this  subject — 
more  than  any  other  with  which  children  have  to  grapple — the 
axiom  holds  good  that  *'  We  learn  to  do  a  thing  hy  doing  it; 
by  doing  it  repeatedly ;  by  doing  it  right  every  time ;  by 
doing  it  until  it  is  well  done."  Yes,  truly;  a  child  learns  to 
spell  by  spelling;  he  learns  chiefly  by  the'«^eye,  but  also  hy 
the  eaVf  though  this  last  fact  is  strenuously  contested  by  some 
writers. 

A  New  System  of  Teaching  to  Spell.— It  was  a 

conviction  of  the  utter  insufficiency  of  the  ordinary  spelling- 
books  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  which  induced  the 
Education  Union  to  prepare  the  new  system  of  Teaching  to 
Spell  described  in  the  chapter  on  reading. 

And  further,  it  was  felt  that  some  more  comprehensive 
method  of  teaching  orthography  was  rendered  imperative  by 
recent  changes  in  the  mode  of  examination.    To  pick  out  the 


SPELLING.  103 


hard  words  from  the  readers,  and  teach  them  indefatigably, 
might  suffice  to  the  perfunctory  teacher  of  the  past;  but  now 
that  children  of  ten  or  eleven  are  liable  to  be  tripped  up  by 
■**  unseen  readers  and  passages  for  dictation,"  the  case  is 
altered.  Whatever  may  be  asserted  to  the  contrary,  it  is  an 
actual  fact  that  these  children  are  expected  to  know  how  to 
■spell  accurately,  at  least,  three  thousand  words. 

This  truly  sounds  very  like  an  "excessive  requirement,'* 
but — as  in  the  case  of  the  abstruse  calculations  in  arithmetic 
demanded  of  our  youthful  scholars — it  behoves  teachers  to 
make  the  best  of  existing  circumstances,  and  to  face  the 
trouble  boldly. 

By  the  diligent  and  persistent  use  of  sheets  of  classified 
words,  any  child  of  average  ability  may  be  helped  to  surmount 
the  multitude  of  difficulties  which  beset  our  English  pro- 
nunciation and  orthography,  and  receive  those  correct  first 
impressions  which  are  not  likely  to  be  forgotten.  But 
before  this  desirable  result  can  be  attained,  that  list  must 
be  gone  through  again  and  again — the  words  repeated  day 
after  day  till  perfectly  known — learned  with  explanation  and 
illustration,  woven  into  sentences,  and  written  by  way  of 
transcription  and  dictation. 

One  kind  of  recapitulation  is  especially  necessary.  This  is, 
the  exercising  of  elder  children  in  the  shorter  words  printed 
for  the  use  of  Standards  I.  and  II.  An  Inspector  calls  atten- 
tion, in  a  recent  Blue-book,  to  the  fact  that  children  frequently 
fail  to  pass  in  dictation,  when  a  comparatively  easy  passage 
from  the  reader  is  chosen;  and  he  thus  accounts  for  the 
apparent  anomaly : — 

**  It  is  often  forgotten  that  the  irregularities  of  English  words  are  chiefly 
in  the  monosyllables  and  dissyllables  learnt  in  the  lower  standards. " 

Care  must  accordingly  be  taken  that  children,  while 
learning  to  spell  "  Hippopotamus,"  do  not  forget  the  letters 
required  to  form  such  words  as — "Dough,"  "plough,"  or 
*' taught." 


104  SPELLING. 


Great    Patience    and    Diligence    Needed. — The 

method  of  using  the  Spelling  Schedules,  referred  to  above, 
has  been  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  reading,  and  so  need  not 
be  repeated  here.  But  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  this,  or  any 
other_ known  process,  supplies  a  "  short  cut  "  to  good  spelling. 
If  such  a  bye-way  exists,  the  writer  of  this  volume  would  be 
glad  to  be  informed  of  it !  As  things  now  are,  the  essential 
condition  of  success  is  the  teacher's  unflagging  energy. 

Too  much  Attention  must  not  be  Drawn  to 
Incidental  Mistakes. — If  our  readers  will  glance  forward 
to  our  remarks  on  the  subject  of  Writing,  they  wiU  see  that  we 
condemn  the  plan  of  trying  to  teach  spelling  by  means  of 
dictation.  This  expedient  is,  indeed,  worse  than  worthless; 
for,  in  numberless  instances,  it  becomes  the  parent  of  error. 
In  the  same  chapter  we  also  assert,  that — when  a  child  has 
been  thoroughly  taught  all  the  difficult  words,  before  a  pass- 
age is  dictated,  the  teacher  has  a  right  to  expect  accuracy, 
and  ought  to  express  displeasure  if  the  exercise  is  defaced 
with  careless  blunders. 

Even  then,  however,  she  must  feel  for  the  child's  difficulty, 
and  take  care  not  to  discourage  him.  **  Come,  you  have 
forgotten,  we  must  rub  this  out  and  write  it  thus,"  is  much 
better  than  holding  the  writer  up  to  reprobation,  as  though  he 
had  been  guilty  of  some  moral  delinquency  in  mis-spelling 
a  word. 

Nor  is  it  wise  to  direct  too  much  attention  to  a  blunder;  to 
make  tlie  child  look  at  it,  to  quote  rules,  and  so  forth.  All 
this  tends  to  fix  the  wrong  mode  of  spelling  the  word  in  the 
scholar's  mind,  whereas  our  aim  should  be  to  make  him  forget 
it,  and  have  it  replaced  by  the  right  mode  as  promptly  as  can 
be  managed. 

We  will  end  these  few  words  about  "Spelling"  (by  the  way 
— it  must  never  be  rendered  "SpelUngs")  by  repeating  our 
advice  to  teachers  to  attack  the  subject  bravely — to  make  the 
children  spell  repeatedly,  spell  accurately,  spell  indefatigably; 


SPELLING.  105 


to  forestall  difficulties,  and  allow  no  guess-work.  Above  all^ 
let  them  remember  there  is  no  smooth,  easy  road  to  spelling,, 
but  that,  if  success  is  to  be  achieved  in  this  subject,  both 
teacher  and  learner  will  find  themselves  "condemned  to  hard 
labour." 


io6 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Writing. 

INTKODUCTION.— The  parents  of  the  children  attend- 
ing elementary  schools  form  their  opinion  of  the 
education  given  therein,  chiefly  by  the  proficiency 
attained  in  writing ;  it  is,  indeed,  almost  the  only  test  it  is  in 
their  power  to  apply. 

This  is  one  good  reason  for  paying  attention  to  the  subject, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  the  only  one ;  for  whether  writing  be 
regarded  as  a  help  to  learning  other  subjects,  or  as  a  channel 
•of  friendly  and  business  communication,  or  a  means  of 
preserving  our  own  thoughts  and  those  of  others  for  future 
use,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  learnt 
quickly  and  well.  In  order  that  this  desirable  result  may  be 
attained,  writing  must  be  taught  on  the  best  principles,  and 
the  early  years  of  elementary  school-life  must  be  made  the 
most  of  for  the  purpose. 

In  this  subject,  as  in  many  others,  modern  taste  has  greatly 
■changed  what  was  once  in  vogue.  That  which  not  many 
years  ago  was  thought  the  correct  style  in  penmanship,  is  now 
discarded  for  its  antipodes  in  character.  We  shall  perceive 
this  at  once,  if  we  compare  the  bold,  round,  firm  hand-writing 
now  advocated,  with  the  small,  angular,  spider-Hke  strokes  of 
the  formerly  much-esteemed  Italian  mode. 

But,  no  matter  what  style  of  caligraphy  may  be  the  favourite 
■of  the  day,  each  writer  falls  into  his  own  peculiar  modification 
of  that  style,  so  that  experts  even  pretend  to  read  a  person's 
character  from  the  peculiarities  of  his  hand-writing — whether 
that  be  running,  cramped,  round,  pointed,  or  jerky. 


WRITING.  107 


Characteristics  of  Good  Penmanship.— it  hardly 
admits  of  dispute  that  good  writing  should  be — (i)  easy  to  read, 
{2)  easy  to  trace  or  execute,  and  (3)  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

If  we  compare  good  plain  print,  or  some  standard  vertical 
writing,  with  a  fairly  good  specimen  of  a  sloping,  angular 
hand,  we  shall  arrive  at  the  following  conclusions : — 

(i)  That  sloping  letters  are  less  legible  than  upright  ones, 
and  that  there  is  a  greater  distance  for  the  pen  to  travel  in 
making  them. 

(2)  That  round  letters  are  easier  to  read  than  angular. 
(Compare  German  script  with  English.) 

(3)  That  plainly-made  letters  are  better  for  the  reader  and 
easier  for  the  writer  than  ornamental  ones.  (Compare  old 
English  with  modern  capitals.) 

(4)  That  to  be  legible,  words  and  letters  must  be  properly 
spaced. 

Hand-writing  is  made  up  of  two  sorts  of  lines — the  straight 
strokes,  which,  when  properly  made,  chiefly  constitute  its  re- 
gularity ;  and  the  curved  ones,  upon  which  its  beauty  depends. 
These  lines  may  be  faulty  in  several  ways.  If  they  are  all  thin, 
the  writing  is  said  to  be  "scratchy";  if  there  is  too  much 
thickness,  it  is  "heavy" ;  if  the  middle  portions  only  of  the  down 
strokes  are  thick,  the  writing  looks  "patchy"  or  "blotchy." 

Although  in  the  early  stages  of  writing,  rapidity  should  not 
be  the  first  object,  but  rather  the  proper  formation  of  the 
letters,  yet  the  ultimate  aim  should  be  so  to  teach  the  art  that 
mind  and  hand  shall  act  in  unison,  and  speed  be  attained  as 
soon  as  it  safely  may  be. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  prime 
essentials  of  a  good  serviceable  hand-writing  are  roundness, 
uprightness,  simplicity  of  outline,  uniformity  in  the  size  of  the 
letters,  proper  joining  of  the  same  and  adequate  spacing. 
All  words,  too,  should  follow  each  other  in  straight  lines  across 
the  paper.  These  requisites  must  constantly  be  kept  in  view, 
while  the  following  hints  and  suggestions  are  carried  out. 


I08  -WRITING. 


The  Hand  should  be  Formed  Early.— When  a 
boy's  school-days  are  to  last  on  till  he  has  reached  the  age 
of  seventeen  or  eighteen,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  vital  importance 
to  his  education  that  he  should  acquire  a  fluent  hand-writings 
during  his  early  years.  But  the  question  is  altered  in  the  case 
of  children  of  the  working-class  -  many  of  whom,  under  the 
present  defective  state  of  the  law,  leave  school  before  entering 
the  sixth  standard.  Until  they  have  overcome  the  mechanical 
difficulties  of  forming  letters — as  well  as  the  initial  difficulties 
of  spelling  and  pronouncing  words — they  can  feel  little  pleasure 
in  their  studies.  It  is,  however,  unnecessary  to  dilate  on  the 
advisability  of  getting  over  this  elementary  work  as  early  as 
possible  in  the  child's  career ;  for  it  must  be  obvious  to  all 
that,  so  long  as  he  is  backward  in  reading  and  writing,  there  is 
a  serious  bar  to  his  advance  in  all  other  branches  of  learning. 

Common -sense  Instruction  Required. — There  is 
little  doubt  that  children  would  learn  to  write  with  ease  and 
comparative  rapidity,  far  sooner  than  they  do,  if  only  a  rational 
system  were  pursued  in  teaching  them. 

To  begin  with — there  should  be  a  uniform  system  of  writing 
taught  throughout  the  school.  Why,  for  instance,  should 
children  form  capitals  differently  in  the  infant  school  and  in  the 
upper  departments,  so  that,  having  laboriously  mastered  the 
way  to  make  certain  letters,  they  are  obliged  as  laboriously 
to  unlesirn.  the  method  later  on. 

First  Efforts  should  be  Carefully  Direoted.~It 

is  here  that  a  reform  is  most  needed.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say,  that  many  little  would-be  scribes  spend  two  or  three 
years  simply  in  acquiring  bad  habits  which  have  to  be 
uprooted  afterwards.  Who  has  not  seen  young  writers  of 
six,  seven,  and  eight  years  of  age,  bending  with  all  possible 
earnestness  over  greasy,  badly-ruled  slates,  and  with  a  blunt 
fragment  of  pencil — forming  every  letter  wrong!  This  is  a 
grievous  spectacle  to  the  true  educationist,  who  knows  that  it 


WRITING.  109 


is  just  during  these  early  years  that  the  foundation  of  a  good 
hand  might  be  laid.  How  much  time  and  trouble  would 
teachers  spare  themselves  and  their  charges,  if  they  would 
jealously  watch  over  such  immature  efforts,  and  guard  against 
the  acquisition  of  the  bad  habits  which  appear  to  come 
naturally  to  every  child  that  takes  pen  or  pencil  in  hand. 
Those  who,  by  careful  teaching,  train  the  little  ones  to  make 
:every  letter  and  word  right  from  the  beginning,  will  save 
themselves  an  infinity  of  trouble,  and  prove  the  truth  of  the 
saying  that  "  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of 


Different  Methods  for  Teaching  a  Good  Style 
•of  Writing. — The  teacher  must  decide  between  the  analytic^ 
or  that  which  proceeds  from  wholes  to  parts,  and  the  synthetic^ 
or  that  which  proceeds  from  parts  to  wholes. 

We  are,  of  course,  staunch  advocates  for  ascertaining  and 
putting  into  practice  the  readiest  modes  of  teaching,  not  only 
writing,  but  all  other  subjects.  It  cannot  be  denied  that 
methods  which  are  not  quite  consonant  with  scientific  prin- 
ciples, are  frequently  made,  in  the  hands  of  an  earnest  and 
skilful  teacher,  to  bring  forth  good  results.  Yet  this  does  not 
exonerate  the  conscientious  instructor  of  youth  from  the 
responsibility  of  striving  to  ascertain  the  best  method  of  im. 
parting,  thoroughly  and  easily,  the  knowledge  of  any  subject. 

The  analytic  system  of  training  children  in  the  art  of 
writing  begins  at  once  with  words.  It  does  so  on  the  principle 
that  words  are  the  earliest  elements  that  a  child  is  conscious 
■of.  Some  easy  word,  such  as  "cow,"  is  chosen  and  written 
by  the  teacher  on  the  black-board,  while  the  children  watch 
her  movements  and  imitate  them  by  tracing  imaginary  charac- 
ters in  the  air.  They  are  practised  at  this,  until  the  teacher 
allows  them  the  use  of  slate  and  pencil.  She  also  calls  them  up 
in  turn  to  the  board,  and  lets  them  attempt  writing  the  word 
thereon  with  chalk.  When  necessary,  the  hand  of  a  child 
is  held  by  the  teacher  and  guided  while  forming  the  word.    In 


no  WRITING. 


some  foreign  schools,  small  black-boards  are  affixed  to  the 
wall  round  the  room,  and  the  children  work  on  these  alternately 
with  slates. 

The  words  are  not  necessarily  spelt  while  they  are  being^ 
written  in  this  way ;  nor  are  the  letters  considered  separately 
until  a  great  many  words  have  been  practised.  The  advocates 
of  this  mode  speak  of  it  as  being  interesting  and  successful ; 
but  the  great  objection  is  that  some  hundreds  of  words  must 
be  written  before  the  child  acquires  enough  facility  to  trace 
with  pen  or  pencil,  and  unassisted,  any  word  that  is  put 
before  him ;  for  the  letters,  as  such,  must  remain  unknown  to- 
him  for  a  long  time.  It  is  not  denied  that  writing  may  be 
taught  in  this  way,  but,  at  the  best,  it  is  a  cumbrous  plan. 

The  Synthetic  Mode. — The  opposite  system  to  this — 
the  synthetic — is  the  old  one  which  requires  the  children  to  be 
first  well-drilled  in  making  **  pot-hooks  and  hangers."  This 
method,  as  well  as  that  of  Mulhauser,  has  the  fault  of 
consuming  much  time,  and  of  destroying  the  children's  interest 
in  their  work  by  robbing  it  of  nearly  all  claim  to  be  considered 
a  mental  exercise. 


Suggested   Methods. 

In  making  choice  of  a  system  for  teaching  writing,  the 
medium  course  will  be  found  the  best.  This  begins  with 
practice,  under  proper  guidance,  in  forming — first  letters,  and 
afterwards  groups  of  letters  arranged  in  various  stages^ 
according  to  their  degree  of  difficulty. 

First  Stage. — When  the  children  have  had  sufficient 
practice  in  making  letters  in  the  air — using  the  forefinger,  and 
following  the  motions  of  the  teacher  as  she  makes  them — they 
may  next  go  through  a  drill  for  learning  to  hold  a  lead  pencil 
properly,  so  as  to  prepare  them  for  writing  on  slates  or 
paper.    The  copy-books,  or  co^y -sheets ^  should  contain  traced 


WRITING.  Ill 


letters  arranged  in  some  well-graduated  order.  Here  the 
instructions,  given  further  on,  as  to  position  and  holding  the 
pen  may  be  studied  with  profit.  In  this  stage,  lessons  on  the 
board  should  alternate  with  copy-tracing  in  the  desks,  until 
the  small  letters  can  be  not  only  perfectly  copied,  but  written 
from  memory. 

Second  Stag^e. — To  make  the  writing-lesson,  as  soon  as 
possible,  interesting,  familiar  words  of  two  or  three  letters  may 
now  be  written.  The  words  selected  should  not,  at  firsts 
contain  letters  requiring  loops  or  long  strokes.  Lead  pencil  is 
still  to  be  used  for  the  traced  copies.  Both  teachers  and  all 
who  assist  them  must  be  extra  vigilant  at  tracing  lessons^ 
taking  care  that  the  letters  are  properly  begun,  that  each 
word  is  completed  without  lifting  pencil  from  paper,  and,, 
above  all,  that  the  correct  position  is  taken  by  the  writer. 

Third  Stag^e. — At  this  point  the  capitals  may  be  traced,, 
and  then  copied  on  slates.  As  a  preparation  for  transcription 
from  print,  let  the  teacher  write  out  on  the  blackboard 
interesting  sentences,  for  the  children  first  to  read  and  then  to 
copy.  They  may  also  be  trained  to  criticise  each  other's 
letters  when  made  on  the  board,  and  compare  them  with 
those  of  the  teacher  in  respect  of  shape,  height,  and  width.. 
The  copies  may  now  contain  more  difficult  words,  to  be  traced 
over  first  with  a  lead  pencil  and  finally  with  pen  and  ink. 

Throughout  these  stages,  the  teacher  must  be  careful  not  tO' 
introduce  too  much  fresh  matter  in  the  successive  lessons,  and 
not  to  fatigue  young  fingers  by  too  long  practice  at  a  time. 
The  board  should  be  used  unsparingly.  No  carelessness 
must  be  allowed  with  regard  to  position,  pen-holding,  or 
formation  of  letters.  In  fact,  children  belonging  to  the  infant 
school  and  Standard  I.,  should  be  so  taught,  that  they  will 
prove  fairly  proficient  when  promoted  to  the  upper  classes. 

Traced  Copies. — The  use  of  copy-books,  or  copy-sheets,, 
with  letters  and  words  printed  in  faint  outline  for  the  young 


112  WRITING. 


pupils  to  trace  over,  is  a  comparatively  modern  expedient. 
It  has  the  recommendation  of  presenting  the  learner  with  but 
one  difficulty  at  a  time,  and  effects  a  speedy  cure  where  faulty 
modes  of  writing  have  been  brought  by  scholars  from  inferior 
schools. 

This  system  has  been  popularised  by  a  large  continental 
teaching  Order — celebrated  throughout  Europe  for  the  pen- 
manship of  their  pupils.  The  members  of  this  wide-spread 
organisation  attribute  the  success  achieved  in  this  branch  of 
•education,  mainly  to  the  very  complete  system  of  outline 
•copies  they  have  introduced  into  all  their  schools.  Hence  we 
read  in  their  manual  of  teaching — "  This  plan  {i.e.,  of  using 
traced  copies)  unites  the  advantages  of  all  others,  and  has 
been  universally  adopted  by  us.  It  saves  much  time,  and  is 
•exceedingly  economical,  though  it  may  not  seem  so  at  first 
sight ;  but  the  fact  is,  that  the  child  so  quickly  acquires  a 
good  handwriting  by  this  method,  that  it  costs  far  less  in  the 
end  than  any  other." 

How  Used. — All  persons  may  not  be  disposed  to  accept 
the  testimony  of  this  educational  community,  and  will  prefer 
to  attain  the  same  end  by  another  route.  But,  if  writing  is  to 
be  well  taught,  there  must  be  a  definite  scheme  of  some  sort, 
and  this  scheme  must  be  consistently  carried  out.  To  those 
who  think  well  to  adopt  the  plan  of  traced  copies — thus 
smoothing  the  way  for  the  little  writers — we  would  say : 
-**  There  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  way  of  using  these  outlines — 
as  of  doing  most  things." 

To  place  a  sheet  of  traced  letters  before  a  child,  and  tell 
him  to  "go  on  writing" — leaving  him  to  puzzle  out  the 
intricacies  alone,  would  be  quite  useless.  The  teacher's  help 
is  needed  here  as  elsewhere. 

Blackboard  Illustration  necessary. — Traced  sheets 
must  at  first  be  used  only  in  conjunction  with  blackboard 
teaching.    Before  the  outlines  are  touched  by  the  scholars, 


WRITING.  113 


teachers  should  write  each  letter,  or  combination  of  letters, 
large  size  on  the  board,  bidding  the  children  follow  every 
movement  attentively,  and  notice  more  particularly  how  letters 
are  commenced,  ended,  and  joined  together,  and  how  each 
word  may  be  completed  without  lifting  the  pen  or  pencil. 
The  class  will  not  take  in  all  their  teacher  says  and  does  the 
first  day;  no,  nor  the  second,  nor  the  third;  but  as  she 
continues  week  by  week,  and  month  by  month,  to  practice 
before  them  for  the  first  five  minutes  of  the  lesson,  letting 
them  afterwards  grasp  the  pencil  and  try  their  own  powers, 
they  will  almost  insensibly  acquire  a  good  bold  style  of 
penmanship — one  which  will  do  credit  to  the  whole  school. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  indolent  teacher,  who  grudges  the 
trouble  of  demonstration,  or  thinks  it  ''  not  worth  while  to 
have  out  the  blackboard  for  five  minutes'  practice,"  will 
reap  the  consequence  in  a  crop  of  bad  habits  that  will  cause 
her  ten  times  the  trouble  to  uproot,  and  aptly  illustrate  the 
saying  that  "The  lazy  man's  load  is  the  heaviest  to  bear." 

It  will  not,  however,  be  found  sufficient  to  give  the  scholars 
a  good  start.  The  teacher  and  her  helpers  must  pass  in  and 
out  constantly  amongst  them,  pencil  in  hand — correcting 
errors  freely. 

In  the  lower  standards,  there  should  be  two  short  writing- 
lessons  daily.  In  Standards  III.  and  IV.  there  should  be  a 
lesson  of  half-an-hour  or  so  every  day ;  while  children  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  standards  should  write  copies  two  or  three 
times  a  week. 

A  practical  and  economical  method  of  using  traced  copies, 
is  to  set  the  younger  children  to  work  first  with  a  hard 
pencil ;  then  let  them  go  over  the  outlines  a  second  time  with 
pen  and  ink  ;  lastly,  let  them  copy  the  whole  on  their  slates  ; 
or,  if  they  are  above  the  first  standard,  on  slips  of  newspaper. 

Writing  on  Newspaper, — Stokes,  in  his  "  Manual  on 
Rapid  Writing,"  recommends  this  practice  for  adults;  and  it 
may  be  adopted  by  school-children  with  great  benefit  to  their 

I 


114  .WRITING. 


penmanship.  It  is  needless  to  dilate  on  the  advantages  of 
the  plan  ;  teachers  who  make  use  of  it  will  soon  discover 
them  for  themselves.  The  paper  should  be  of  good  quality, 
such  as  that  on  which  the  ''Times"  ''Telegraph,"  and 
"Standard"  are  printed,  and  the  print  must  be  regular — 
not  consisting  of  advertisement  sheets  or  very  short  para- 
graphs. The  children  should  be  directed  to  write,  over  two, 
three,  or  more  lines  of  letter-press,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
Hand  their  teacher  wishes  them  to  practice. 

The  sheets  should  be  folded  into  a  convenient  size — not  too 
small — and  the  children  enjoined  to  write  straight  on,  regard- 
less of  column  lines  or  other  divisions.  They  must  be  as 
careful  to  make  letters  touch  the  lines  top  and  bottom  as 
though  the  paper  was  ruled. 

With  a  view  to  forming  somewhat  of  a  running  hand  in  the 
upper  standards,  it  is  advisable  to  accustom  children  to 
write  a  succession  of  o's,  m's,  or  u's,  right  across  a  sheet  of 
newspaper,  without  letting  the  pen  leave  the  paper. 

Position. — A  vast  amount  of  vexation  would  teachers 
be  spared,  if  they  were  to  insist  on  their  pupils  taking  the 
proper  position  from  the  first : — 

The  head  should  be  held  up ;  the  feet  planted  steadily  on  the 
floor. 

The  whole  of  the  left  fore-arm  should  be  laid  on  the  desk, 
and  the  hand  placed  firmly  on  the  slate  or  paper. 

The  middle  of  the  right  fore-arm  should  rest  on  the  edge  of 
tiie  desk — the  elbow  being  kept  two  or  three  inches  from  the 
side ;  the  wrist  ought  not  to  touch  the  table,  but  the  hand  slide 
on  the  third  and  fourth  finger. 

(N.B. — With  quite  small  children  it  is  often  necessary  to 
let  the  wrist  rest  on  the  table.) 

When  the  child  begins  a  fresh  line,  he  should  be  instructed 
to  move  the  book  or  slate  so  much  higher  on  the  desk— «o^ 
the  right  hand  lower ;  copies,  slates,  and  note-books  must  be 
kept  straight  on  the  desk,  and  well  in  front  of  the  writer. 


WRITING.  115 


How  to  Hold  the  Pen. — The  manner  of  holding  the 
pen  differs  for  sloped  and  vertical  hand-writing.  The  latter 
having  been  adopted  in  most  Government  offices,  will  probably 
•entirely  supersede  the  old-fashioned  style.  It  requires  that  the 
pen  should  slant  well  to  the  right,  and  the  hand  be  so  held 
that  the  wrist  is  turned  to  the  side,  instead  of  having  its  broad 
surface  parallel  to  the  table  or  desk,  as  was  formerly  thought 
<:orrect.  For  sloped  letters,  the  tip  of  the  pen  must  be  to  the 
left  and  the  hand  turned  in  such  a  way  that  the  outside  only 
appears. 

The  pen  must  be  held  rather  upright,  between  the  thumb 
and  forefnger,  supported  by  the  middle  finger — the  stem 
of  the  pen  resting  between  the  knuckle  and  joint  of  the  first 
finger.  Both  nibs  must  be  pressed  lightly  and  evenly  on  the 
paper.  The  point  should  be  fully  an  inch  from  the  tip  of  the 
forefinger ;  for  if  the  pen  is  held  too  near  the  point,  it  pro- 
duces slow,  cramped  writing.  Inked  fingers  are  a  sign  of  this 
fault,  which  is  a  very  common  one  in  second-rate  schools. 

The  Position  should  be  Taught  by  Drill.— To  sit 

aright,  to  place  the  arms  and  hold  the  pen  properly — is 
really  a  drill  exercise,  and,  like  all  drill  movements,  should  be 
executed  with  the  greatest  precision  and  accuracy.  The 
object  we  aim  at  in  writing  is — that  a  perfectly  even  line 
shall  be  made,  and  that  the  pen  shall  travel  with  ease,  pre- 
cision, and  rapidity  over  the  paper.  This  result  can  only  be 
attained  by  the  teacher  persevering  in  giving  plenty  of  practice 
in  the  proper  positions  and  movements,  until  the  children  find 
it  difficult  to  write  in  any  but  the  correct  way.  Pen  or  pencil 
drill  should  precede  each  lesson  in  the  lower  standards,  and 
the  same  care  should  be  exercised,  as  to  posture  and  pencil- 
holding,  in  slate-work,  as  when  pen  and  ink  are  used. 

The  following  drill-exercise  has  been  found  to  answer 
well : — 

(i)  Place  slate  or  copy  on  the  desk  exactly  in  front  of  writer. 

(2)  Sit  upright,  with  feet  planted  on  floor  (or  support  of  desk),  right  loot 
more  forward  than  left. 


Il6  WRITING. 


(3)  Left  arm  on  desk^  with  hand  pressed  firmly  on  the  book  or  slate. 

(4)  Take  up  pen;  holding  it  between  thumb  and  middle  finger  (letting; 
it  rest  chiefly  on  the  latter),  the  forefinger  laid  lightly  on  the  pen  to- 
steady  and  guide  it. 

(5)  Dip  pen  in  the  ink. 

(6)  Right  arm  in  position ;  wrist  turned  so  that  hand  will  slide  on  the- 

third  or  the  little  finger ;   arm  three  or  four  inches  from  waist  (for 
vertical  hand- writing). 

(7)  Commence  writing. 

As  often  as  the  class  relapse  into  a  careless  posture,  so- 
often  must  the  teacher  interrupt  the  writing  and  have  the 
drill  repeated,  if  it  be  six  or  eight  times  in  the  course  of  the 
same  lesson ;  for  the  rules  concerning  position  must  be- 
enforced.  Nothing  can  be  more  subversive  of  discipline  than 
for  regulations  to  exist  in  theory  only.  It  brings  the  teacher's 
office  into  contempt  when  she  allows  the  children  to  ignore 
her  orders,  and  to  persist  in  writing  with  noses  almost  touching: 
the  paper,  or  with  slates,  books,  and  pens  in  any  position, 
but  the  right  one. 

Plenty  of  Pencil  and  Pen  Practice.— As  soon  as 
the  child  is  able  to  use  pencil  and  pen  with  some  degree  of  ease 
and  freedom,  and  can  readily  form  both  small  and  capital 
letters  from  dictation,  he  should  have  plenty  of  practice  with  a 
view  to  gaining  speed  and  facility.  At  the  same  time,  neither 
slovenly  writing  nor  careless  attitudes  must  be  tolerated. 
Children  are  naturally  heedless,  and  if  not  watched,  will  have 
a  smudge,  a  blot,  or  a  word  omitted  or  mis-spelt  in  every  other 
line.  The  teacher  must  be  kindly  severe  in  exacting  care  and 
neatness.  Instead,  however,  of  scolding  a  child,  it  is  better 
to  say  gravely — *'  This  is  not  your  best ;  *'  and  then  have  the 
copy  re-written — perhaps  at  the  same  time  taking  away  a  good 
mark  or  ticket. 

The  slovenliness  of  EngHsh  children's  writing,  as  compared 
with  those  in  Continental  schools,  is  very  marked ;  but  it  is 
chiefly  owing  to  the  carelessness  permitted  by  teachers  in  the 
lower  standards ;  and  often  in  the  infant  school. 


WRITING.  117 


Transcription. 

This  is  a  useful  exercise  when  used  in  moderation  and  in  its 
right  place.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  a  vast 
amount  of  the  bad  penmanship  in  Enghsh  schools  may  be  laid 
to  the  score  of  transcription.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  little 
children  who  have  had  no  systematic  teaching  in  the  art 
»of  writing,  set  to  scribble  from  a  printed  book,  and  tnis- 
iorming  almost  every  letter.  They  are  making  o's  backwards, 
omitting  capitals,  because  they  are  ignorant  how  to  form  them, 
-and  wholly  disregarding  such  matters  as  spacing  and  punc- 
tuation. In  some  schools,  this  is  considered  a  good  way  of 
keeping  children  quiet.  Quiet  they  certainly  are,  and  a  casual 
looker-on  might  feel  gratified  at  the  absorbed  attention  of  the 
little  band.  But  the  truth  is,  these  imperfectly-taught  children 
-are  not  only  doing  no  good,  they  are  doing  positive  harm; 
learning  to  write  badly,  and  gaining  the  pernicious  habit  of 
copying  word  after  word — often  letter  by  letter — mechanically ; 
■i.e.,  without  the  least  idea  of  the  sense. 

Transcription  requires  to  be  Carefully  Taught. 

— If  this  exercise  is  not  to  injure  education,  it  must  never  be 
attempted  in  Standards  I.  and  II.  except  under  the  careful 
rsupervision  of  an  experienced  teacher.  If  the  mistress  must 
neglect  one  writing  lesson,  far  better  to  allow  the  children 
to  blunder  alone  over  the  traced  copies,  than  to  leave  them 
to  sow  the  seed  of  a  harvest  of  errors  by  transcribing  from 
print  without  help  or  guidance. 

Hints  for  Teaching  this  Exercise. — Writing  from 
print  is  really  unsuited  to  little  scholars  of  six  andseven ;  but  as 
this  exercise  now  forms  part  of  the  examination  of  Standard  I., 
they  must  obviously  be  allowed  a  fair  amount  of  practice  in  it. 
By  care  and  thoughtful  training,  the  teacher  may  avert 
positive  harm  resulting. 

To  begin  with,  let  no  child  transcribe  a  single  word  till  he 
can  write  the  whole  alphabet  accurately  and  easily;  and  has 


Il8  WRITING. 


also  had  some  experience  in  connecting  letters,  spacing,  and 
punctuating.  This  .will  have  the  good  effect  of  relegating 
lessons  in  transcription  to  the  last  two  or  three  months  of  the 
school  year  in  Standard  I.;  and  we  can  assure  our  readers 
that  it  is  possible,  by  following  this  prudent  plan,  to  ensure  the 
writing  on  Inspection  day  being  a  model  of  symmetry. 

As  soon  as  Transcription  may  be  safely  allowed,  let  the 
children  begin  with  single  words  taken  from  a  spelling-sheet ; 
and,  at  first,  let  the  teacher  herself  transcribe  each  word  on 
"the  board,  before  them.  The  class  must  then  copy  them  ;, 
later  on,  they  may  be  permitted  to  write  them  directly  from 
print.  When  transcribing  single  words,  they  must  be  directed 
to  wiite  two  only  in  each  line,  to  commence  each  with  a  capital 
letter  and  end  with  a  full  stop,  and  to  pronounce  every  word  in 
a  low  tone  or  whisper,  both  before  and  after  writing  it.  It  may 
be  asked — Why  this  last  regulation  ?  In  order  that  the  word 
may  convey  the  thought  it  expresses,  to  the  mind  of  the 
writer.  Otherwise  he  will  simply  go  on  writing  one  letter 
after  another  without  attaching  any  more  meaning  to  the 
process,  than  he  would  if  he  were  forming  a  succession  of 
pothooks.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  the 
habit  of  accustoming  children  to  read  and  write  intelligently 
from  the  first. 

Transcription  of  Sentences, — This  can  only  be  at* 
tempted  with  profit  after  special  instruction  has  been  given^. 
The  teacher  must  write  sentences  before  the  class,  bidding 
them  follow  her  every  movement,  note  the  use  of  capitals  and 
stops,  the  distance  between  words  and  sentences,  and  chiefly 
the  manner  in  which  the  words  may  (and  may  not)  be  divided 
at  the  end  of  a  line.  In  short,  she  should— as  recommended 
invariably  throughout  these  pages— foresee  every  difficulty 
and  provide  against  every  mistake  which  her  little  charges 
might  possibly  make.  Then,  let  her  not  forget  to  read  the  whole 
sentence  or  passage  over  to  her  i>cholars,  bolh  before  and  after 
writing  it,  and  to  make  sure  that  they  understand  its  drift. 


WRITING.  119 


Spacing". — This  is  always  a  difficulty  to  beginners.  We 
can  hardly  expect  them  to  measure  with  the  eye;  but,  if 
recommended  to  use — as  a  measure — either  the  top  of  one 
fingfer  or  of  their  pencil,  they  will  soon  be  trained  to  "space 
evenly,"  as  the  printers  say.  Irregularity  in  this  respect  will 
spoil  the  appearance  of  really  good  hand- writing;  whereas 
regular  spacing  will  make  indifferent  penmanship  look  well. 

The  teacher  must  use  her  own  judgment  as  to  when  she 
may  safely  discontinue  the  blackboard  teaching  of  transcrip- 
tion. Probably  the  longer  she  continues  this  daily  preparation, 
the  more  satisfactory  will  be  the  result. 

Class  Headers  not  suited  for  Transcription. — A 

short  anecdote  or  dialogue,  poem  or  fable — complete  in  itself 
— is  more  suitable  for  transcription  than  passages  from  the 
class  readers  of  which  the  children  are  already  weary.  It  is 
also  wasteful  to  use  the  latter  for  this  purpose,  since  nothing 
wears  them  out  more  speedily.  However,  in  Standards  I.  and 
XL,  where  the  children  are  examined  from  their  readers, 
teachers  generally  think  it  safer  that  they  should  transcribe 
largely  from  them.  All  the  same,  it  is  doubtful  whether  they 
would  not  do  as  well  or  better  on  Inspection  day,  if  allowed 
to  copy  more  varied  matter  beforehand. 

Cuttings  from  magazines  for  the  young  (such  as  "Little 
Folks"  and  "Chatterbox")  are  very  good;  and,  if  pasted  on 
card,  will  last  a  long  time.  The  children's  recitation  verses 
should  likewise  be  transcribed,  but  not  until  they  have  been 
thoroughly  explained. 

Individual  Correction  not  always  possible,— It 

will  not,  of  course,  be  found  practicable  to  correct  sixty  or 
more  slates  after  the  lesson  is  over.  Teachers  should  move 
continually  among  the  children,  making  necessary  corrections 
with  a  pencil— advising  and  criticising — also,  at  times,  en- 
couraging. One  of  their  chief  functions  will  be  to  find  out 
whether  the  scholars  are  writing  with  brains  as  well  as  fingers. 


I20  WRITING. 


That  is,  whether  they  are  entering  into  the  sense  of  what  they 
write,  or  merely  grouping  a  number  of  letters  together,  much 
as  an  intelligent  ape  might  be  trained  to  do. 

When  it  is  needful  to  correct  transcription  after  the  lesson, 
some  of  the  elder  scholars  may  relieve  the  teacher  of  part 
of  the  task. 

Transcription  in  Upper  Standards.— Poetry  especi- 
ally should  be  very  carefully  transcribed  by  older  scholars. 
They  must  be  taught  to  arrange  the  lines  symmetrically,  and 
to  punctuate  with  accuracy.  In  higher  grade  schools,  it  is 
an  excellent  plan  to  let  the  elder  girls  make  a  collection  of 
"Gems,"  both  sacred  and  secular.  Parents  will  usually  pay 
for  a  nicely-bound  book,  and  value  it  greatly  when  filled. 
Inspectors  would  probably  willingly  accept  such  an  album  in 
lieu  of  copy-books — though  there  is  ample  time  for  both,  if 
time  be  economised.  Of  course,  the  sacred  extracts  must  be 
written  during  the  time  set  apart  for  religious  instruction. 

Transcription    an    Unintellectual    Exercise,  — 

Though  we  have  devoted  such  space  as  seemed  desirable  to 
this  subject,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  we  consider  this 
operation  deserving  of  the  name  of  education.  It  is  a  purely 
mechanical  process  that  appeals  but  little  to  the  child's 
intellect  or  to  his  powers  of  observation.  An  hour  devoted  to 
composition  will  do  more  towards  cultivating  the  higher  facul- 
ties of  a  scholar,  than  twenty  hours  spent  in  copying  from  print. 
The  zealous  teacher  will  always  regard  with  a  jealous  eye  the 
time  devoted  to  the  latter,  and  cut  it  as  short  as  circumstances 
will  allow. 


Dictation. 

The  mistaken  idea  that  spelling  can  be  taught  by  means  of 
dictation  is  responsible  for  much  of  that  defective  ortho- 
graphy which  is  frankly  acknowledged  to  be  a  national  defect. 


WRITING.  121 


Children  have  been  expected  to  write  words  correctly  which 
they  have  never  before  seen,  or  even  heard  of. 

Moreover,  as  there  are  three  or  four  wrong  ways  of  spelling 
many  English  words,  and  but  one  right  way,  it  cannot  occasion 
:surprise  that  irregular  words  are  commonly  spelt  incorrectly 
when  not  previously  known.  And,  although  the  offending 
word  may  afterwards  be  "written  out"  twenty-five,  fifty,  or 
■even  one  hundred  times,  the  first  impression  is  too  often  the 
permanent  one. 

Now,  however,  people  seem  awaking  to  the  truth — plain 
enough  all  along  one  would  have  thought — that  dictation  can 
•only  be  the  test  of  what  has  already  been  learned.  Besides,  all 
itrue  educationists  recognise  the  fact  that  one  great  aim  of  the 
teacher  should  be  to  remove  stumbling-blocks  out  of  the  path 
■of  the  young,  and  to  take  such  wise  precautions  that  blunders 
will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  This  being  so,  we  should  use 
•every  effort  to  prevent  a  child  ever  seeing  a  word  wrongly 
written.  Dictated  passages  should  contain  no  word  which  he 
•does  not  know  thoroughly — its  meaning  as  well  as  its  or- 
thography. Then  he  may  be  justly  blamed  should  he  make 
mistakes,  since  they  must  arise  from  pure  carelessness. 

Dictation  must    be    Used    with    Judgment, — It 

would  be  a  decided  benefit  to  education,  if  dictation  tests 
•could  be  banished  from  all  the  standards,  and  the  child's 
ability  gauged  by  the  intelligent  use  he  can  make  of  words  he 
.has  become  familiar  with,  in  simple  composition.  We  have, 
-however,  to  do  the  best  we  can  under  existing  regulations, 
.and  to  cut  the  educational  coat  according  to  the  cloth  allowed 
by  the  Department.  Accordingly,  even  in  Standard  II.,  the 
children  must  be  prepared  to  write  correctly  any  passage  in 
their  readers,  Vv^hich  the  Inspector  may  chance  to  select. 

Nevertheless,  our  advice  is — let  dictation  be  very  sparingly 
used  until  the  examination  is  drawing  near.  It  should  be 
regarded  as  the  crowning  point  of  previous  labour;  the  reward 
of  good  work  already  done — the  scholars  being  taught  to  con- 


122  AVRITING. 


sider  it  somewhat  of  an  honour  to  be  permitted  to  "write 
from  dictation." 

Let  every  passage  chosen  for  the  purpose  undergo  searching 
scrutiny  beforehand,  and  each  word  of  even  doubtful  difficulty 
be  written  on  the  blackboard,, and  explained,  before  the  lesson 
begins. 

Ho"W  to  give  the  Lesson. — In  giving  out  dictation  the 

follov/ing  points  should  be  observed  :— 

.  The  children  must   be  trained  to  watch  the  teacher's  lips- 
while  the  words  are  dictated. 

The  whole  of  the  passage  should  first  be  well  and  ex- 
pressively read,  and  then  repeated  in  clauses — once  only. 

It  is  important  that  a  complete  clause  should  be  given  out  at 
once,  not  merely  two  or  three  words ;  and  that  the  children  look 
at  the  teacher  and  refrain  from  writing  even  a  letter  till  all  is~^^ 
given  out.    We  read  in  a  recently-issued  Inspector's  Report — 

"  Failure  in  dictation  at  the  Inspection  often  arises  from  want  of  care  ift 

instructing  the  children  as  to  ihe  proper  method  of  taking  it  down. 

They  have  not  been  taught  to  listen  to  the  words  dictated.     As  soon 

as  the  first  word  has  left  the  teacher's  lips,  down  go  t>ie  heads,  and 

the  children  are  busy  writing  it,  while  the  succeeding  words  fall  oi> 

almost  unheeding  ears." 

The  children  must  write  as  rapidly  as  they  are  able.     The 

passage  is  generally  dictated  far  too  slowly.     It  is  better  to 

arrange  the  standard  in  two  or  three  divisions,  than  to  keep 

the  quick  children  marking  time  (so  to  speak),  while  the  slow 

ones  painfully  catch  them  up.     The  dullards  should  have  less. 

difficult  passages,  and  not  be  pressed  on  so  rapidly.     A  good 

teacher  can  easily  dictate  to  two  or  three  divisions  at  the  same 

time.     Children  who  are,  from  some  cause,  slower  than  the 

rest,  should  be  instructed  to  leave  a  sentence  unfinished,  if 

necessary,  and  start  each  passage  given  out  with  the  class. 

Such  children  must  not  be  waited  for,  but  instructed  to  draw 

a- dash  for  every  word  which  they  have  not  been  able  to  write 

in   the   time   allowed.     In  the   same   way — when  a  child  is 

doubtful  how  to  spell  a  word — he  should  be  told  to  draw  a. 


WRITING.  123 


line:  and  leave  it,  not  guess  at  the  spelling.  It  is  no  small: 
achievement  to  teach  a  child  to  know  when  he  doesn't  know — 
something ! 

Correction  of  Dictation. — The  method  adopted  for 
correcting  dictation  (and  there  are  many  such  methods)  must 
be  effective,  and,  at  the  same  time,  expeditious.  It  causes 
children  to  be  careless  when  they  think  that  their  faults  will 
escape  detection ;  yet  often  the  time  and  labour  expended  on 
the  correcting  of  dictation  might  be  spent  to  better  purpose. 

Conclusion  of  the  Lesson, — Lastly,  mis-spelt  words 
having  been  written  out  aright,  let  the  children  read  what 
they  have,  written,  either  to  themselves  or  simultaneously,, 
and  after  the  teacher  has,  by  a  few  rapid  questions,  ascertained 
that  they  have  thoroughly  understood  the  tenour  of  the 
passage,  the  lesson  may  be  concluded. 

Dictation  in  High  Standards. — The  operation  may 
be  varied  here  by  directing  the  children  to  write  something 
different  from  what  is  actually  dictated.  For  instance,  the: 
verbs  given  out  in  one  tense  may  be  written  in  another;  or 
nouns  dictated  in  the  singular  number  may  be  required  to  be 
written  in  the  plural.  Thus,  besides  a  spelling-test,  the: 
lesson  may  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  mental  exercise. 


Copy-books. 

Copy-books  for  Exhibition  at  the  Examination^ 

— According  to  the  present  code  regulations,  each  child  must 
present  a  copy-book  at  the  annual  inspection.  Most  of  H.M. 
Inspectors  prefer  books  without  head-lines,  filled  with  speci- 
mens of  the  children's  handwriting,  copied  from  the  black- 
board, or  some  good  model.  The  copy-books  of  the  two 
highest  standards  should  be  of  good  paper,  and  contain  forms 


124  WRITING. 


for  business  letters,  bills  and  invoices,  with  perhaps  a  little 
ornamental  writing. 

It  is  often  well  to  allow  the  scholars  to  take  home  these 
•copy-books  after  the  examination.  They  are  valued  by  the 
parents,  who  have  very  little  opportunity  of  judging  of  the 
progress  made  by  their  children. 

General  use  of  Copy-books, — The  occasional  use  of 
copy-books  throughout  the  year,  trains  the  pupils  in  habits  of 
neatness  and  accuracy.  In  the  form  of  note-books  they  may 
become  of  great  practical  value,  if  they  contain  a  well-arranged 
summary  of  the  year's  course  of  study  in  geography,  history 
and  science,  grammar  and  composition. 

All  copy-books  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  tidy 
No  blots  or  creases  must  be  overlooked ;  neither  should  they  be 
Tubbed  at  the  edges,  nor  smudged  with  the  fingers,  nor  should 
unused  spaces  be  left.  One  line  must  be  filled  up  before 
another  is  begun,  and  lines  must  not  be  skipped.  It  has  been 
said,  with  a  fair  amount  of  truth,  that  the  efficiency  of  a 
school  may  be  assessed  according  to  the  condition  of  its 
copy-books. 

The  name  of  the  child  must  be  written  on  each  copy-book, 
and  the  daU  at  the  head  of  each  copy. 


Slates. 

Most  of  the  practice  in  the  lower  standards  will  be  upon 
slates.  It  is  a  mistake  not  to  use  them  for  certain  purposes  in 
the  upper  standards ;  for  slate-practice  encourages  speed  and 
freedom,  and  is  of  real  service  in  helping  to  form  the  hand. 

Slates  should  be  strong,  and  of  good  quality ;  an  occasional 
v/ash  with  hot  soda-water  will  keep  them  free  from  grease. 

'tKuliug. — Both  slates  and  paper  should  be  properly  ruled 
— slates  on  one  side  only,  the  other  being  left  free  for  sums.* 


WRITING.  125 


The  gigantic  letters  which  at  one  time  were  considered  the 
proper  thing  for  tiny  fingers  to  compass,  are  no  longer  taught 
in  the  best  schools.  The  widest  ruling-space  need  not  exceed 
three-fifths  of  an  inch.  Half-an-inch  is  preferred  by  many 
for  the  first  and  second  standards ;  one-third  of  an  inch  for 
Standard  III.,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  for  Standard  IV.. 
This,  before  the  end  of  the  school-year,  should  lead  up  ta 
practice  on  single  lines. 

The  simpler  the  ruling,  both  on  slates  and  paper,  the  better.. 
The  fanciful  and  complicated  styles  which  are  constantly  ad- 
vertised may  look  well  on  paper,  but  only  serve  to  confuse 
the  children.  If  the  latter  are  taught  to  loop  their  letters, 
properly,  and  to  make  the  loops  of  b  f  k  1  the  same  length, 
as  also  those  of  j  g  y  z.,  they  will  not  need  a  labyrinth  of 
lines  to  guide  them. 

Handwriting  often  too  large  in  Standard  II.— 

It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  Standard  II.  children  labouring 
to  write  dictation  and  transcription  in  round  hand.  This  is 
quite  unnecessary.  For  such  exercises,  the  lines  need  not  be; 
more  than  a  third  of  an  inch  wide.  If  the  children  write- 
round-hand  copies  regularly,  there  will  be  no  fear  of  their 
writing  becoming  cramped. 

Writing  on  Single  Lines. — In  Standard  IV.,  writing^ 
on  single  lines  must  be  practised,  but  supervision  must  be  ex- 
ercised, and  care  taken  that  the  writing  is  kept  straight,  and 
that  the  letters  are  neither  uneven,  cramped,  nor  crowded. 

No  Time  to  Waste. — Perhaps  there  is  no  department 
of  school-work  in  which  so  many  precious  moments  are 
thrown  away,  as  in  writing.  To  one  who  knows  how  much 
has  to  be  accomplished  during  the  child's  short  school-life,. 
it  is  sad  to  see  half  the  members  of  a  writing  class,  with  pens- 
held  up— often  for  five  minutes  at  a  time — waiting  for  ''teacher 
to  come  round"  and  look  at  the  line  just  written.     Let  the: 


126  WRITING. 


teacher   provide   against   this   loss,   by  arranging  that  ench 
scholar  shall  be  kept  hard  at  work  throughout. 

It  cannot  be  too  often  or  too  earnestly  repeated,  that 
^'We  all  learn  to  do  things  by  doing  them,"  consequently 
children  learn  to  write  by  writing,  not  by  holding  pens  up 
in  the  air ! 

Concluding  Advice. — In  conclusion  we  would  press 
upon  all  teachers  the  expediency  of  training  their  pupils  to 
write  quickly  and  carefully  while  in  the  second  and  third 
standards.  It  is  quite  possible  to  teach  them  to  feel  at  home 
with  pen  and  ink,  and  to  write  habitually  welly  before  they 
leave  Standard  IV.  We  must  remember  that  but  little  pro- 
.gress  can  be  made  with  that  important  exercise — Composition 
— so  long  as  children  have  "handwriting  on  the  brain,"  and 
■can  only  form  letters  slowly  and  painfully. 

Again,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  children  require 
confidence  as  well  as  practice,  and  those  who  really  try  must 
be  encouraged,  no  matter  how  imperfect  their  work  may  be. 
A  good  teacher  imbues  her  pupils  with  her  own  faith  that 
they  can  do  whatever  they  earnestly  attempt. 

Our  reiterated  counsel  to  those  who  would  see  all  their 
young  scholars  able  to  talk  with  pen  and  pencil  is — 

(a)  Give  plenty  of  short  lessons  in  the  lower  standards. 

(b)  Make  the  children  read  every  word  they  write. 

{c)  Allow  no  carelessness — no  scribbling,  blots,  smudges,  or  badly-formed 

letters. 
{d)  Use  the  blackboard  continually,  and  upon  some  system. 
This  last  point  is  of  extreme  importance,  as  we  may  gather 
from  the  advice  of  not  only  the  best  teachers,  but  the  unani- 
mous opinion  of  our  school  inspectors.     Says  one : — 

*'  I  always  find  the  best  writing  in  those  schools  where  the  blackboard  is 
invariably  used. " 

And  another : — 

*'For  every  writing-lesson  there  ought  to  be  a  blackboard,  with  two  or 
three  copies  on  it,  before  the  class." 

**Try  to  make  the  handwriting  as  perfect  as  possible  throughout  the  school. 
Set  a  high  standard  before  yourself  and  the  children. 


WRITING.  127 


It  is  natural  to  us  all  to  take  pleasure  in  carrying  anything 
to  the  point  of  excellence,  and  we  often  confer  a  positive 
favour  upon  our  pupils  by  exciting  in  them  the  desire  to 
•excel.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  time  and  labour,  which 
might  be  employed  to  better  advantage,  must  not  be  lavished 
upon  the  production  of  copies  wliich  rival  copper-plate  in 
accuracy.  The  primary  aim  and  object  of  the  Elementary 
school  teacher  should  be  to  enable  boys  and  girls,  of  twelve  or 
thirteen  years  of  age,  to  write  such  a  plain,  distinct,  and  fluent 
.hand,  as  will  subsequently  be  of  practical  service  to  them. 


128 


CHAPTER   X. 


ARITHMETIC. 

IT  is  much  to  be  hoped  that  the  Education  Department 
will,  ere  long,  see  fit  to  lighten  the  present  excessive 
requirements  in  the  way  of  arithmetic.  We  are  far 
from  denying  that  this  branch  of  study  has  great  value,  and 
no  education  would  be  worth  much  that  excluded  it.  Still,, 
the  difficulty  of  the  Code  arithmetic  for  young  children  makes- 
it  a  fearful  strain  both  upon  the  teachers  and  learners;  and,  in 
order  to  fulfil  the  conditions  upon  which  alone  a  grant  can 
be  secured,  an  amount  of  time  and  toil  has  to  be  devoted  to- 
this  subject,  which  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  its  importance. 

However,  while  hoping  that  through  the  enlightened  policy 
which  now  prevails  at  Whitehall,  a  much-needed  reform  may 
be  carried  out,  it  is  our  plain  duty  to  make  the  best  of 
existing  circumstances,  and  especially  to  exercise  every  inge- 
nious art  to  lighten  the  burden  which  must,  for  the  present^ 
be  borne  by  the  children  of  this  country. 

Arithmetic — the  science  and  art  of  number — if  taught 
properly  and  effectively,  should  train  the  reason,  exercise 
the  memory,  foster  care  and  accuracy,  and  prove  of  practical 
use  in  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life.  Since  it  is,  generally 
speaking,  the  only  mathematical  subject  taught  in  Elementary 
schools,  it  should  be  made  to  contribute  to  that  mental  training 
which  is  so  greatly  promoted  in  higher  schools  by  the  super- 
added studies  of  Euclid  and  Algebra. 

The  burden  may  be  lessened  by  Skilful  Instruc- 
tion. — The  only  way  in  which  teachers  can  lessen  the  strain 
which  arithmetic  now  imposes  upon  the  immature  brains  of 


ARITHMETIC.  I29 


the  young,  is  by  first-rate  teaching.  It  may  seem  little  that 
even  the  highest  skill  can  effect,  but  let  not  that  little  be 
■despised. 

Failures  in  Arithmetic.  —  Inspectors  attribute  the 
unsatisfactory  results  obtained  in  so  many  schools  to  the  way 
in  which  arithmetic  is  taught.  They  assert  that  there  is  little 
or  no  attempt  to  elucidate  principles,  that  the  use  of  the 
blackboard  is  largely  neglected,  and  that  mental  exercises  are 
not  given  sufficient  prominence. 

There  are  other  reasons,  which  are  not  always  taken  into 
account.  Frequently,  too  much  is  expected  from  the  scholars. 
People  are  rather  apt  to  gauge  young  minds  by  what  they  have 
themselves  acquired  through  a  long  course  of  learning  and 
•experience.  They  forget,  too,  that  many  children  are  nervous, 
so  that  at  the  Annual  Inspection— which  they  regard  as  an 
awful  event— they  sometimes  lose  that  perfect  composure 
which  is  necessary  to  enable  them  to  attack  arithmetical  test- 
cards  with  success.  This  is  one  reason  why  teachers  are  often 
■disappointed  by  the  failure  of  children  upon  whose  proficiency 
they  had  counted. 

This  not   a  Treatise   on  Number. — It   is  not  the 

purpose  of  this  little  work  to  give  full  instructions  in  arith- 
metic. Only  such  directions  and  suggestions  will  be  given 
as  the  writers  believe  may  be  new  to  some  of  the  teachers  who 
will  use  the  book,  or  may  help  them  to  render  instruction  in 
this  science  less  burdensome  and  wearying  to  the  children 
under  their  care. 

To  begin  with,  the  following  hints,  if  carried  out,  will  be 
found  to  save  time  and  labour  in  the  end  : — 

(i)  Every  Stroke  should  tell.— There  is  not  an  hour 
of  the  school-year  to  lose,  if  the  poor  children  are  to  rise  to 
the  standard  exacted  of  them.  Too  much  pains  cannot  be 
expended  in  planning  out  the  work  of  the  forty-four  weeks. 


130  ARITHMETIC. 


with  thought  and  ability.  Each  week — each  day — should  have 
its  appointed  task.  Not  a  single  sum  should  be  given  with- 
out a  purpose.  Every  stroke  should  tell.  The  sheets  of 
examples  published  by  the  Education  Union  will  be  found  of 
great  service,  as  the  head-mistress  can  thus  put  into  her  sub- 
ordinates' hands  precisely  what  she  wishes  them  to  use  at  the 
moment.  But  these  will  not  in  the  least  exonerate  teachers 
from  that  incessant  oral  instruction  and  blackboard  demon- 
stration, on  which  success  mainly  depends. 

(2)  Prepare  your  Lessons. — It  is  an  undoubted  truth- 
that  the  more  carefully  any  lesson  is  prepared — so  much  the 
more  skilfully  will  it  be  given,  the  more  profitable  and  pleasant 
will  it  be  to  the  hearers.  The  vague,  hesitating  manner  in 
which  some  teachers  explain  the  various  rules  or  operations 
to  their  class,  is  chiefly  caused  by  slothfulness  in  preparation* 

(3)  Attack  Certain  Difficulties  Early. — Many  ex- 
ercises on  number  which  puzzle  and  trouble  children  for 
years,  might  be  made  clear  if  brought  to  their  notice  earlier,. 
and  in  their  easiest  form.  Problems,  fractions,  aliquot  parts^ 
"  measures,"  and  "multiples"  have  a  mysterious  and  alarming 
sound  to  young  people,  which  is — to  a  great  degree — unneces- 
sary. They  should  be  taught  systematically  and  very  simply,, 
from  the  second  standard  upwards. 

(4)  Teach  the  Tables  thoroughly  in  the  Lower 
Standards. — Constant  practice  in  the  tables  and  mental 
exercises  may  be  said  to  be  the  work  of  Standards  I.  and  II.,. 
accompanied  by  just  sufficient  slate  practice  to  enable  the 
children  to  "pass"  with  credit. 

The  importance  of  attaining  proficiency  in  the  necessary 
tables  at  this  early  stage  cannot  be  over-rated.  They  are  the 
foundation  of  all  accuracy  and  readiness  in  computation,  and,, 
consequently,  should  be  learnt  thoroughly  and  intelligently, 
and  in  advance  of  actual  requirements.     More  than  aught 


ARITHMETIC.  I3I 


else,  will  this  lighten  afterwork,  and  conduce  to  ultimate 
success.  The  Code  requirements  are  not  heavy  in  these  two 
standards;  nor  do  the  children  suffer  from  the  monotonous 
drill  of  table-learning,  as  they  might  when  older. 

(5)  Importance  of  Mental  Arithmetic. — Difficulties 
may  be  hnmeasurahly  lessened  by  the  steady  daily  use  of 
mental  arithmetic,  carefully  graded,  and  taught  with  earnest- 
ness and  energy.  Those  who  have  not  tried  it,  have  little 
idea  what  a  sound  and  solid  foundation  for  future  work  is  laid 
by  this  means,  and  what  brilliant  after-results  may  be  con- 
fidently looked  for. 

(6)  Teach  Children  to  Make  Figures  Quickly 
and  Arrange  their  Work  Neatly  from  the  First. — 

There  is  plenty  of  time  in  the  infant  school  for  children  to 
learn  to  make  figures  quickly  and  carefully;  they  should  be 
taught  to  form  them  from  copies  written  in  good  bold  style. 
In  Standards  I.  and  II.  they  must  be  shewn  how  to  place 
sums  properly  upon  the  slate,  to  draw  straight  lines  beneath 
them,  to  shew  up  the  answer,  to  state  problems  intelligibly 
from  the  beginning,  as  well  as  to  write  £  s.  d.^  and  all  other 
signs  neatly  and  legibly.  These  details  must  be  so  taught 
that  there  shall  be  nothing  to  unlearn  later  on. 

(7)  Anticipate  the  Work  of  the  Standards.— With 

the  dread  of  the  examination  before  them,  many  teachers 
are  afraid  to  go  at  all  beyond  the  bare  requirements  of  the 
standard  in  which  the  child  finds  itself.  This  is  altogether  a 
mistake.  Not  only  does  the  children's  good  demand  that  the 
chasms  between  the  standards  should  be  bridged  over,  so  far 
as  may  be,  but  they  will  do  far  better  in  their  special  work  if 
their  range  is  widened.  It  is  not,  of  course,  recommended  that 
they  should  be  doing  the  work  of  the  standard  above  that  in 
which  they  are  classed — for  this  would  be  to  add  to  the  over- 
pressure which  undoubtedly  exists — but  it  is  wise  to  prepare 


132  ARITHMETIC. 


for  the  difficulties  awaiting   them  on  their  next   promotion, 
and  thus  make  tlie  rise  more  gradual. 

(8)  Teach.  Principles. — Principles,  and  not  only  me- 
chanical work,  must  be  taught  from  the  commencement.  The 
theory  of  arithmetic,  without  being  made  so  prominent  as  to 
repel  young  minds,  must  yet  be  brought  to  bear  upon  each 
lesson.  These  must  be  well  illustrated  by  concrete  examples 
— i.e.f  every  number  should,  as  a  rule,  be  spoken  of  in  con- 
nection with  objects  that  are  familiar  to  the  scholars,  either 
in  their  school  or  home-life. 

(9)  Teach  Short  Methods. — Opportunities  should  be 
seized  in  the  upper  standards  of  teaching  brief  methods  of 
multiplying,  dividing,  etc. — but  this  should  never  be  done 
without  giving  the  reason  of  the  process.  Children  often  cover 
their  paper  with  cumbrous  calculations  which  might  have 
been  expressed  by  a  few  figures.  A  great  deal  of  ingenuity 
and  thought  may  be  exercised  by  cancelling  and  other  expe- 
dients. It  is  grievous  waste  of  time  to  keep  children  long  at 
a  problem  which  they  cannot  solve  ;  rather  give  them  the 
help  they  need,  and  then  set  them  an  easier  sum  of  the  same 
kind — as  a  test. 

The  elder  children  should  often  be  made  to  prove  their  work 
by  doing  the  same  sum  by  more  than  one  rule ;  the  younger 
ones  should  prove  theirs  by  the  usual  methods. 

(10)  Save  Time  in  every  way  possible. — The  com- 
petent teacher  will  make  it  her  aim  to  save  the  scholars'  time 
in  every  possible  way,  and  will  be  fertile  in  resources  for 
accomplishing  this  end.  The  following  plans  have  been 
adopted  with  success  in  the  lower  standards,  where  children 
are  apt  to  be  held  back  through  slowness  in  figuring  : — 

{a)  Turn  the  answer  of  an  addition  sum  into  a  multiplica- 
tion one  by  placing  a  figure  underneath.  In  like  manner  the 
answer  to  a  subtraction  sum  may  be  utilised  for  division  by 
placing  a  figure  before  it. 


ARITHMETIC  I33 


(b)  When  a  sum  in  addition  has  been  correctly  worked, 
regard  the  answer  as  the  lowest  row  of  figures  for  a  new  sum 
— rubbing  out  the  separating  line.  This  may  be  continued 
for  an  indefinite  time. 

(11)  Recapitulate  frequently. — The  teacher  must  not 
forget  to  review,  at  intervals,  all  back  work,  and  afford  the 
pupils  constant  practice  in  those  rules  which  they  would  be 
likely  to  forget. 


The  Principal  Divisions  for  an  Arithmetic 
Hiesson. — Speaking  broadly,  every  arithmetic  lesson  should 
consist  of  three  principal  portions  : — 

First,  there  should  be  the  introductory  mental  exercises,  the 
object  of  which  will  be  to  prepare  for  the  second — or  black- 
board portion. 

In  the  second  part,  the  aim  of  the  teacher  must  be  to  de- 
monstrate, in  the  simplest  manner,  the  reason  of  the  rule  she 
is  endeavouring  to  teach,  and  also  to  shew  clear  and  symme- 
trical ways  of  working  examples  in  it. 

The  third,  or  practical  part,  consists  in  allowing  the  chil- 
dren to  work,  under  the  teacher's  supervision,  a  few  examples 
either  on  the  blackboard,  or  on  slates. 


The  Work  of  the  Standards. 

In  the  remarks  that  follow  on  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  in 
the  different  standards,  only  the  order  of  instruction  will,  in 
most  cases,  be  found  indicated.  Little  or  no  attempt  will  be 
made  to  show  the  precise  manner  in  which  the  different 
lessons  are  to  be  given.  Detailed  instructions  on  such  matters 
will  be  found  in  the  Handbook  of  Arithmetic,  which  is  meant 
to  be  used  as  a  companion  work  to  this  Manual  of  School 
Management. 


134  ARITHMETIC 


The  methods  for  teaching  standard  arithmetic  have  been 
arranged  in  courses;  but  these  rhust  not  be  considered  as 
co-exfensive  with  lessons.  One  course  will  generally  require 
several  separate  lessons.  Each  is  meant  to  clearly  point  out, 
for  the  teacher's  guidance,  both  the  system  on  which  the 
instruction  should  be  given,  and  also  how  much  of  the 
ground-work  should  be  accomplished  before  proceeding  to 
other  parts  of  the  subject.  The  work  for  each  standard  is 
divided  into  six  courses. 

Arithmetic  in  Standard  I. 

Children  must  first  be  Taught  to  Read  and 
Write  Figures. — First  Course.  —  Before  children  are  re- 
quired to  work  sums  by  themselves,  it  must  be  ascertained 
that  they  can  read  and  write,  with  accuracy  and  readiness, 
numbers  up  to  thirty  at  least.  They  must,  from  the  outset, 
know  the  way  to  read  and  write  every  number  they  may  be 
called  upon  to  use. 

Supposing,  then,  that  they  can  read  and  understand  the 
formation  of  all  numbers  up  to  thirty,  it  will  be  quite  allow- 
able to  drill  them  in  the  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division  tables  up  to  the  number  twenty-four. 

Before  going  on  to  formal  addition  and  subtraction  sums, 
the  teacher  should  test  the  children's  knowledge  of  numbers 
by  requiring  them  to  form  groups  of  pencils,  sticks,  pens, 
or  balls  (on  the  frame,)  so  as  to  make  up  a  given  number. 
Thus:  Suppose  i8  pencils  are  required  to  be  counted  out; 
they  may  first  be  put  in  two  piles  of  lo  and  8,  then  of  9  and  9, 
next  of  6  and  12,  and  so  on. 

How  to  make  up  Numbers. — Besides  mental  exer- 
cises, the  sums  taught  at  this  stage  for  slate  work  should 
afford  practice  in — 

(a)  The   dififerent   ways  in  which  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  can  be  made  up  by 

addition. 
{b)  The  different  ways  in  which  numbers  from  10  to  20  can  be  made  up. 


ARITHMETIC  I35 


{c)  The  different  ways  in  which  numbers  from  21  to  30  can  be  made  up. 
(d)  The  subtraction  of  numbers  not  greater  than  10. 
ie)    „  „  „  »,  20. 

(/)  „  M  »  »  30. 

(N.B. — The  addition  and  subtraction  tables  should  be  learnt 
t)y  heart,  and  repeated  daily. 

Second  Course, — This  course  must  begin  with  extending 
the  notation  and  numeration  of  numbers  (a)  up  to  40,  so  that 
the  children  may  be  prepared  for  the  explanation  of  the  three- 
times  multiplication  table  ;  (b)  up  to  50,  for  four-times ;  and 
•(c)  up  to  60,  for  the  five-times  table.  Good  use  should  be  made 
•of  the  multiplication  tables — not  only  to  teach  the  division  of 
numbers  (mentally  at  this  stage),  but  to  form  numerous 
varieties  of  mental  questions.  Practice  should  also  be  given 
in  counting  backwards  and  forwards  by  twos;  starting 
■sometimes  from  an  even  number,  at  others  from  an  odd  one. 

During  this  course  it  will  be  wise  to  explain  the  signs,  + , 
— ,  =,  as  they  may  now  be  used  for  setting  sums  horizontally, 
'C.g.,  6-f2-i-8=i6,  10  —  7  =  3.  For  the  addition  sums,  carrying 
should  now  be  taught,  but  in  the  units'  place  only.  The 
teacher  must  insist  on  the  children  reading  every  sum  before 
they  work  it,  and  also  give  abundant  practice  in  reading  other 
numbers  at  sight.  The  numbers  to  be  added  may  at  times  be 
■dictated,  but,  as  a  rule,  copying  from  the  blackboard  is  better 
at  this  stage.  The  kind  of  sums  given  may  be  arranged  in 
three  sets — the  answers  to  which  are  to  be  (a)  under  40, 
(b)  under  50,  (c)  under  60. 


17 
14 

18 
19 

19 

20 

(^) 

27 
13 

26 
17 

24 
18 

31 

37 

39 

40 

43 

42 

ic) 

12 

13 
14 
16 

55 

• 

13 

12 

10 
18 

15 

18 

9 

"55 

136  ARITHMETIC. 


When  adding,  the  children  should  be  made  to  say — 4  units 
and  7  units  make  11  units,  that  is — i  ten  and  i  unit.  Mark 
the  unit  and  carry  i  ten  to  the  tens ;  7wt  merely  4  and  7  are 
II,  mark  i  and  carry  i. 

Subtraction  sums  must  still  be  done  without  altering  the 
bottom  or  top  number.  They  may  be  of  the  following 
kinds : — 

(«)  38    36    37         (^)  48    49    47         (^)  50    52    59 
14     12     21  22     12     30  20     30     26 

24    24     16  26     37     17  30     22     33 

Let  the  children  say — 4  units  taken  from  8  units  leave 
4  units,  mark  4  units  in  the  units'  place;  i  ten  taken  from 
3  tens  leaves  2  tens,  mark  2  tens  in  the  tens'  place. 

Third  Course. — Begin  by  recapitulating  the  substance- 
of  courses  one  and  two,  and  then  proceed  to  teach  the  notation 
and  numeration  of  figures  {a)  to  75,  {h)  to  90,  {c)  to  100 — 
giving  incessant  practice  in  the  addition  and  multiplication 
tables ;  addition  sums,  {a)  of  two  and  three  lines  with  totals 
less  than  75,  {h)  of  two  and  three  lines  with  totals  less  than. 
go,  {c)  of  four  and  five  lines  with  totals  less  than  100. 

The  signs  for  multiplication  and  division  may  be  introduced 
and  explained  at  this  point,  and  appropriate  examples  of  their 
use  given,  thus:  6  x  7  =  42,  2  x  3  x  5  =  30,  24-1.3  =:8. 

DifBLCulties  of  Subtraction. — The  subtraction  now 
taught  must  involve  the  process  usually,  but  incorrectly,  called 
**  borrowing."  We  say  incorrectly,  for  the  method  commonly 
used  for  subtracting,  when  any  figure  in  the  under  line  is  toO' 
large  to  be  taken  directly  from  the  one  over  it,  is  really  the 
method  of  equal  increase.  The  full  explanation  of  this  and  other 
rules  will  be  found  in  the  "Handbook  of  Arithmetic." 

For  the  present,  it  must  suffice  to  recommend  teachers,, 
before  proceeding  to  the  more  difficult  subtraction  sums,  to 


ARITHMETIC.  I37 


explain  the  principle  of  the  rule  to  the  children  by  shewing 
them  that  taking  6  from  8  gives  the  same  remainder  as  taking 
6  +  3  from  8  +  3,  or  6  +  5  from  8  +  5,  or  6  +  10  from  8  +  10 ;  and,, 
therefore,  when  we  subtract  56  from  63,  we  perform  a  similar- 
operation  by  adding  10  units  to  the  units'  place  of  the  upper 
line,  and  one  ten  (rrio  units)  to  the  tens'  place  of  the  lower  line- 
Let  the  numbers  used  at  present  be  kept  below  100,  and 
make  the  children  accurate  at  first  in  sums  without  noughts, 
(ciphers). 

Suppose  the  children  about  to  receive  a  lesson  on  the  sub- 
traction sum — 

56 

27 

Let  them  be  taught  to  say  the  working  somewhat  as  follows  : — 
I  cannot  take  9  units  from  6  units,  I  therefore  add  10  units. 
to  the  6  units  of  the  upper  line,  and  i  ten  to  the  2  tens  of  the 
under  line.  Nine  units  from  16  units  leave  7  units  for  the 
units'  place.  Three  tens  from  5  tens  leave  2  tens  for  the  tens'" 
place. 

Fourth  Course. — With  every  lesson,  the  teacher  should, 
combine  well-selected  mental  exercises  (carefully  graduated),, 
both  abstract  and  concrete.  For  this  purpose  the  tables, 
must  be  largely  utilized.  During  this  course  no  new  tables, 
should  be  learnt,  as  it  will  be  found  better  to  go  over  again 
and  perfect  those  already  known,  dwelling  especially  on  such 
parts  as  the  pupils  seem  to  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
remembering. 

Children  should  be  taught  the  meaning  of  such  terms  as 
half,  quarter,  and  three-quarters,  and  well  practised  in  their  use. 

The  numeration  and  notation  (a)  of  100,  no,  120 — to  190; 
{h)  of  loi,  102 — to  119;  (c)  of  any  number  between  100  and 
200,  should  next  be  taught. 

The  addition  sums  given,  may  consist  [a)  of  three  lines  of. 


138  ARITHMETIC. 


units  and  tens,  (b)  of  four  lines  of  units  and  tens,  (c)  of  five  or 
more  lines  of  large  and  small  numbers,  with  totals  in  each 
•case  below  200. 

Practice  in  subtraction  may  be  extended  to  numbers  ranging 
from  100  to  200,  (a)  with  those  requiring  no  alteration  in  upper 
and  lower  line,  (b)  with  those  requiring  the  addition  of  ten  units 
to  the  units'  figure  of  the  top  line,  {c)  with  those  requiring  the 
addition  of  10  tens  to  the  tens'  figure  of  the  top  line. 

The  same  way  of  adding  and  subtracting  the  tens'  column 
■must  be  observed,  as  was  shown  in  Course  2,  for  the  units' 
•column,  e.g.y  in  the  sum — 

82 

33 

44 


the  children  should  say — 4  tens  and  3  tens  are  seven  tens,  and 
8  tens  are  15  tens;  mark  5  tens  in  the  tens'  place  and  i  hun- 
dred in  the  hundreds'  place. 

Similarly,  if  the  subtraction  sum  is — 


237 
64 


say — I  cannot  take  6  tens  from  3  tens,  I  therefore  add  10  tens 
to  the  tens'  figure  of  the  top  line,  and  i  hundred  (=  10  tens) 
to  the  hundreds'  place  of  the  bottom  line.  Six  tens  from  13 
tens  leave  7  tens  for  the  tens'  place  in  the  answer,  and  i  hun- 
dred taken  from  2  hundred  leaves  i  hundred  for  the  hundreds* 
:place. 

Fifth  Course. — All  through  this  standard  tables  must 
"be  assiduously  taught — the  preference  being  given  to  addition. 
With  the  aid  of  the  twice-times  multiplication  table,  a  little 
'Should  be  taught  about  half-pence  and  pence,  and  three-times 
•jnay  similarly  be  utilized  for  lessons  on  three  penny  pieces. 

With  regard  to  notation  and  numeration,  if  the  children 


ARITHMETIC.  1 39 


thoroughly  understand  the  reading  and  writing  of  numbers 
from  100  to  200,  there  will  be  very  little  difficulty  experienced 
;in  carrying  them  on  to  i,ooo.  Firstly,  deal  with  loo,  200 — 
lup  to  1,000,  and  with  numbers  havmg  a  cipher  in  the  units' 
place;  secondly,  with  numbers  having  a  cipher  in  the  tens' 
place;  thirdly,  with  any  number  up  to  1,000. 

In  addition,  construct  sums  of  four  or  five  lines  {a)  with  totals 
l)elow  300,  {h)  with  totals  below  500,  (c)  with  totals  below 
J, 000.  In  subtraction,  there  may  be  sums  of  three  figures, 
with  carrying  (a)  from  the  units'  place  only,  (h)  from  the  tens' 
place  only,  {c)  from  both.    Ciphers  should  now  be  freely  used. 

Sixth  Course. — Notation  and  numeration  may  be  ex- 
tended to  the  reading  and  writing  of  numbers  {a)  up  to  2,000, 
\^J))  up  to  5,000,  {c)  up  to  10,000. 

Much  practice  must  be  given  to  the  addition  and  subtraction 
>of  any  numbers  arranged  in  sums  of  two  or  three  figures. 
Carrying  from  the  hundreds'  column  should  be  explained,  and 
the  addition  answers  may  be  extended  as  far  as  5,000. 

If  the  attainments  of  the  children  warrant  such  a  step,  easy 
multiplication  and  division  sums  by  two,  three,  and  four  may 
\)e  introduced,  and  some  simple  problems  involving  {a)  addi- 
tion only,  {h)  subtraction  only,  (c)  both  rules. 

The  children,  during  their  stay  in  this  standard,  should  be 
practised  in  easy  questions  about  change  from  3^.,  6d.,  15. ^ 
up  to  55.,  and  be  made  practically  acquainted  with  what  makes 
up  a  pound,  a  foot,  a  yard. 

Having  now  gone  through  the  work  of  Standard  I.,  it  may 
be  as  well  to  remark  that,  although  the  scientific  and  strictly 
'Correct  method  of  working  is  given,  it  will  be  unwise  to  restrict 
the  children  to  this  mode  of  doing  sums.  In  order  to  gain 
iacihty  and  confidence,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  like- 
wise do  a  large  amount  of  mechanical  work.  For  this,  the 
^ums  may  be  longer,  and  embrace  a  number  of  figures. 

Teachers  must  bear  in  mind  that  there  are  two  distinct 


140  ARITHMETIC. 


objects  to  be  kept  in  view:  (i)  To  make  the  children- 
thoroughly  understand  the  reason  for  each  process,  and 
(2)  to  give  them  the  power  of  rapid  and  accurate  calculation. 

The  principal  difficulty  being  what  is  generally  termed. 
borrowing  in  subtraction — when  the  lower  figure  is  higher  than 
the  one  above  —it  is  of  importance  to  hit  upon  a  plan  which 
may  be  as  little  of  a  puzzle  as  possible  to  these  exceedingly 
young  learners. 

We  will  give  three  of  the  methods  commonly  used.  It  is 
not  easy  to  pronounce  more  in  favour  of  one  than  another. 

(i)  Make  the  children  add  10  units  to  the  top  figure,  and  add  one  (ten)  tO' 
the  lower  figure  of  the  next  cokimn. 

(2)  Teach  children  to  place  a  small  i  before  the  top  figure  (thus  adding 

10  to  it),  and  when  they  rub  it  out,  to  add  it  to  the  lower  figure  of  the 
next  column. 

(3)  Here  the  children  do  not  add  the  10  units  to  the  top  figure.  Instead; 
of  this,  they  subtract  the  lower  figure  from  10,  and  add  the  difference- 
to  the  top  figure.  This  plan  has  manifest  advantages,  especially  in 
subtraction  of  money,  and  weights  and  measures. 

The  standard  should  often  be  practised  in  subtraction  sums 
in  which  o  is  taken  from  o,  and  10  from  10, 


It  will  be  found  an  excellent  plan  to  procure  or  prepare 
large-print  sheets  of  sums,  arranged  for  a  fortnight's  work. 
These  should  be  used  as  follows  in  the  lower  standards : — 

(i)  A  sheet  having  been  placed  in  front  of  the  class,  children- 
should  work  the  sums  aloud,  the  answers  being  named,  not 
written. 

(2)  When  they  can  do  this  easily,  the  same  sums  may  be- 
worked  on  slates. 


Arithmetic  in  Standard  II. 
Liay  a  good  foundation  in  the  Lower  Standards. 

— If  teachers  desire  to   find  good  arithmeticians  among  the 
elder   scholars,   they   must    devote    their    utmost    skill    and 


ARITHMETIC.  I4I 


earnestness  to  the  teaching  and  training  of  the  younger 
pupils. 

At  the  end  of  the  Second  Standard  course  of  lessons,  all 
the  processes  used  in  the  simple  rules  ought  to  be  perfectly- 
known,  notation  and  numeration  completely  mastered,  and 
some  readiness  acquired  in  dealing  with  problems  involving 
two  distinct  operations.  One  great  cause  of  the  very  meagre 
results  in  problematic  arithmetic,  is  that  so  few  attempts  are 
made  to  teach  it  systematically  in  the  early  stages.  Conse- 
quently, in  the  later  ones,  there  is  too  much  to  be  grasped  in 
a  short  time. 

If  a  teacher  should  exclaim,  "Ah!  but  how  is  this  to  be 
■done  ? "  The  answer  is :  "  Analyse  arithmetical  problems  your- 
self; give  specimen  lessons  to  quite  small  children ;  instruct  the 
younger  teachers  as  to  the  steps  they  must  take  in  order  to 
ground  the  scholars  thoroughly.  Always  descend  to  first 
principles — to  the  simplest  elements — for  simplicity  is  the 
great  promoter  of  progress,  and  is  real  science." 

Let  Problems  be  Easy  and  Carefully  Chosen. — 

Properly  graduated  elementary  problems  are  very  seldom  met 
with.  When  children  have  learnt  addition,  they  should  be 
practised  in  problems  involving  that  rule  only ;  the  same 
remark  applies  to  subtraction;  but,  when  both  rules  are  well- 
know^n,  then  questions  may  be  put  involving  the  use  of 
the  two  rules.  So,  when  multiplication  has  been  taught, 
the  problems  first  given  should  only  require  multiplication; 
next  multiphcation  and  addition;  then  multiplication  and 
subtraction;  and  finally  sums  including  the  three  rules.  In 
the  same  way  division  may  be  combined  with  addition,  then 
with  subtraction,  and  lastly  with  multiplication. 

In  all  problems  for  this  and  the  other  standards,  let  the 
■children  be  required  to  write  suitable  definitions  of  each 
operation.  These  should  at  first  be  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
different  steps  in  the  sum,  but,  later  on,  more  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  unitary  method. 


142  ARITHMETIC. 


First  Course. — The  multiplication  tables,  and  conse- 
quently the  division  tables,  may  now  be  extended."^  For  this- 
course  let  the  children  be  practised  from  twice  i  to  twice 
20,  three-times  i  to  three-times  20,  four-times  i  to  four-times 
20;  and  in  the  pence  tables  as  far  as  36<i.=  3s.  Teachers- 
are  not  always  quick  to  notice  what  excellent  opportunities 
the  multiplication  tables  afford  of  demonstrating  the  value  of 
money.  Four-times  can  be  used  for  farthings  and  pence ; 
three-times  for  threepenny  pieces,  and  so  on.  Questions, 
on  change  out  of  a  shilling,  a  florin,  and  a  half-crown,  and 
on  the  principal  aliquot  parts  of  these  coins,  should  be- 
given  here.  Questions  about  pounds  and  ounces  will  also  be 
serviceable. 

In  numeration  and  notation  there  is  much  to  be  done  all 
through  this  standard.  The  teacher's  efforts  in  this  course- 
must  be  to  get  the  children  to  read  numbers  over  10,000  and 
under  20,000  (a)  without  ciphers,  {h)  with  one  cipher  in, 
various  positions,  {c)  with  any  number  of  ciphers. 

Addition  sums  of  three  or  four  lines,  and  with  totals  below 
20,000,  may  be  worked  on  the  blackboard  and  slates — great 
attention  being  given  to  making  the  children  understand  the 
carrying  from  the  hundreds  to  the  thousands,  etc. 

In  subtraction,  let  the  top  and  bottom  lines  consist  of  four 
figures  each,  with  carrying  from  the  units  and  tens.  Easy 
problems  in  addition  and  subtraction  should  form  the  basis  of, 
at  least,  three  lessons  per  week. 

Multiplication  must  be  commenced  in  earnest.  It  is  more 
difficult  than  many  people  suppose,  to  make  children  under- 
stand the  object  of  multiplying.  Accordingly,  the  teacher 
should  begin  with  naming  a  number  of  concrete  objects,  and 
then  require  the  children  to  increase  this  number  by  using  the 
multiplication  table. 

For  instance,  having   asked   how  many  legs  a  chair  has, 

*In  some  classes  the  extended  tables  might  be  found  too  difficult.  It  must,  therefore,  be- 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher  to  decide  whether  it  is  better  to  teach  them  now  or  wait 
till  a  higher  standard  is  reached. 


ARITHMETIC.  143 


make  them  find  out,  by  slate  arithmetic,  how  many  legs  i6,  i8,, 
26  chairs  have. 

The  same  operation  may  be  repeated,  indefinitely,  with, 
boxes  of  nails,  eggs,  e.g.,  i6o  nails  in  one  box,  how  many  in  6,. 
8,  or  12  boxes. 

Children  having  thus  grasped  the  meaning  of  multiplication, 
may  go  on,  in  the  next  place,  to  reason  out  the  process  in  the 
following  manner : 

Supposing  it  is  required  to  multiply  8,537  by  4,  teach  the 
pupils  to  say  4  times  7  units  are  28  units,  mark  8  units  and 
carry  2  tens ;  4  times  3  tens  are  12  tens  and  2  tens  carried  are 
14  tens,  mark  4  tens  and  carry  i  hundred  ;  4  times  5  hundred' 
are  20  hundred  and  i  hundred  carried  are  21  hundred,  or  2 
thousand  i  hundred,  mark  the  hundred  and  carry  2  thousand  ;. 
4  times  8  thousand  are  32  thousand  and  2  thousand  carried  are 
34  thousand,  mark  34  thousand.  There  will  be  very  little 
difficulty  in  teaching  this,  if  they  have  learnt  to  add  properly. . 
It  will  not  always  be  necessary  to  make  the  class  name  the 
steps  in  full;  but  the  teacher  should  require  it  occasionally^ 
to  make  sure  that  they  do  not  forget  the  explanation  that 
has  been  given. 

A  right  understanding  of  the  science  of  multiplication 
having  been  thus  attained,  thorough  exercise  in  the  mechanical 
working  of  sums  containing  a  number  of  figures,  may,  in  the 
next  place,  be  given. 

Division. — Of  the  four  simple  rules,  division  undoubtedly 
presents  the  greatest  difficulty  to  young  scholars.  It  may  be 
rendered  easier  if  they  are  trained  to  use,  regularly,  the 
multiplication  table  as  a  division  table:  thus — six  eights  are 
48  ;  there  are  eight  sixes  in  48 ;  6  will  go  8  times  into  48. 
During  the  first  lessons  it  will  be  a  help  if  the  multiplication 
table  is  hung  where  the  children  can  see  it.  The  teacher  will, 
then  proceed  to  give  concrete  examples,  as  recommended  above 
for  multiplication,  and  also  teach  them  to  analyse  a  sum  in, 
division,  as  follows  : — 


144  ARITHMETIC. 


Supposing  it  is  desired  to  divide  8,241  by  3.  Threes  in  8 
thousand  are  2  thousand  with  2  thousand  (or  20  hundred)  over, 
to  be  carried  to  the  2  hundred.  Threes  in  22  hundred  are  7 
hundred  with  i  hundred  (or  10  tens)  over,  to  be  carried  to 
the  4  tens.  Threes  in  14  tens  are  4  tens  with  2  tens  (or  20 
units)  over,  to  be  carried  to  the  unit.  Threes  in  21  units  are 
7  units. 

Though  multipHcation  and  division  are  the  two  principal 
rules  to  be  taught  in  this  standard,  it  is  of  real  importance  to 
press  forward  diligently  with  addition,  and  never  let  a  day 
pass  without  some  practice  in  this  rule.  True,  the  class 
Jiave  learnt  how  to  do  it,  but  accuracy  and  quickness  have  yet 
to  be  attained. 

The  pupils  should  be  trained  to  read  the  answers  to  their 
sums. 

When  remainders  occur,  they  should  be  taught  to  write 
them  with  the  addition  sign  (e.g.,  Ans.  275  +  3). 

It  is  very  desirable  that  children  should  be  shewn  that — 
(i)  Multiplication  is  a  shortened  form  of  addition. 
(2)  Division  is  a  shortened  form  of  subtraction. 
(3;  Division  is  the  opposite  process  to  multipHcation. 

Second  Course. — In  tables,  the  children  may  learn  from 
5  times  I  to  5  times  20,  and  from  6  times  i  to  6  times  20,  and 
they  should  be  constantly  practised  in  2,  3,  and  4  times  up  to 
twenty.  This  must  on  no  account  be  substihited  for  the  daily 
repetition  of  the  addition  and  multiplication  tables  already 
learnt. 

The  pence  table  must  be  extended  to  s^-,  questions  given  on 
a  crown  and  a  half-sovereign,  on  a  pint  and  a  quart,  and 
frequent  use  made  of  the  signs  +,  — ,  x,  4-,  =. 

Numbers  from  20,000  to  40,000  should  be  taught ;  while  the 
addition  sums  may  consist  of  four  and  five  lines  with  totals 
below  40,000.  In  subtraction,  it  is  best  to  keep  to  four  figures 
in  each  line,  with  carrying  from  units,  tens,  and  hundreds 
when  explaining  the  science;   at  other  times,  sums  of  con- 


ARITHMETIC.  I45 


siderable  length  may  be  used  with  advantage.  Multiplication 
and  division  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  Problems  in 
these  rules  must  be  given  three  or  four  times  weekly. 

Third  Course. — Seven,  eight,  and  nine  times  (extended) 
and  the  pence  table  to  g6d.  must  be  learnt.  Questions  on  the 
different  coins  that  make  a  sovereign,  and  on  the  change  out 
of  a  sovereign,  will  give  good  exercise  in  the  mental  portion. 
Inches,  feet,  and  yards,  may  also  afford  material  for  a  few 
questions. 

At  this  stage,  the  words  sum,  total,  difference,  remainder, 
may  be  explained. 

Acquaintance  with  numbers  should  be  extended  up  to  70,000, 
and  be  taught  by  the  same  steps  as  before,  and  this  number 
must  be  the  limit  to  the  totals  of  those  addition  sums  which 
are  used  for  analysis.  In  subtraction,  give  three  or  four  figures 
in  the  under  line  to  be  taken  from  a  number  consisting  of  five 
figures.  The  problems  may  involve  both  addition  and  sub- 
traction. 

For  the  reasons  given  above,  children  should  be  practised 
in  multiplication  and  division  sums  containing  (a)  not  more 
than  four  figures,  {h)  any  number  of  figures. 

As  much  variety  as  possible  should  be  introduced  in  the 
setting  of  sums.  A  child  who  will  multiply  correctly  4973  by 
97,  is  often  puzzled  if  asked  to  multiply  28  by  56. 

Fourth.  Course. — The  extended  multiplication  tables 
must  be  10,  11,  and  12  times.  The  pence, table  will  require  to 
be  carried  to  144^.  Questions  on  all  the  coins  may  be  given. 
The  teacher  should  also  introduce  and  explain  the  words 
multiplier,  multiplicand,  product,  divisor,  dividend,  quotient. 

100,000  will  now  form  the  higher  limit  for  exercise  in  nota- 
tio7i  and  numeration.  Easy  sums,  with  and  without  ciphers, 
must  be  given  promiscuously. 

Addition  sums  may  consist  of  five  or  more  lines  containing 
three  and  four  figures,  with  answers  less  than   100,000.     In 

L 


146  ARITHMETIC. 


subtraction,  there  may  be  an  upper  line  of  three,  four,  or  five 
figures  (including  ciphers),  and  a  lower  line  of  two,  three,  or 
four  figures. 

Easy  composite  numbers,  e.g.,  21,  27,  30,  should  be  used 
both  for  multiplying  and  dividing.  The  reason  for  multiplying 
by  factors  must  be  given.  Division  sums  must  be  first  kept  to 
numbers  that  give  no  remainder.  Attention  should  also  be 
drawn  to  the  multiplication  and  division  (in  one  line)  of 
numbers  by  10,  20,  30,  etc. 

Fifth  Course. — Recapitulate  the  extended  multiplication 
tables,  and  the  pence  table.  Teach  shillings'  table  to  loos. 
=£S,  and  something  about  gills,  pints  and  quarts. 

In  the  reading  and  writing  of  numbers  below  a  million,  or 
those  of  six  figures,  the  children  must  be  led  to  see  that  if 
they  can  read  three  figures,  it  is  easy  to  read  six,  since  every 
group  of  three  figures  is  read  in  the  same  way.  Thus,  686,686 
is  read  as  six  hundred  and  eighty-six  (thousand),  six  hundred 
and  eighty-six  (units) ;  and  it  will  be  wise  for  the  teacher  to 
use  numbers  similar  to  these  for  the  first  lessons — 203,203 ; 
520,520;  100,100. 

Six  and  seven  lines  with  2,  3,  4,  5  figures  may  now  be 
given  for  addition,  so  long  as  the  total  is  kept  below  one  million. 
For  subtraction,  the  lines  may  consist  of  any  number  of  figures 
up  to  six,  although  in  this  rule,  as  well  as  in  the  others,  the 
teacher  must  remember  to  introduce  variety  by  giving  small 
numbers  occasionally,  e.g.,  18  +  6  -h  30  -h  9  ;  1098  — 17  ;  38  x  7, 
2170;  281-1.3,  97 -r  5- 

Long  Multiplication. — Long  multiplication  must  now 
receive  great  attention,  and  be  made  exceedingly  clear. 
Supposing  the  sum  given  is  to  be  multiplied  by  347,  let  the 
children  be  made  to  notice  that  they  must  multiply  first  by  7 
units,  then  by  4  tens,  and  then  by  3  hundreds.  Unless  great 
care  is  taken,  children  cannot  reaHze  when  they  multiply 
by  tens,  and  hundreds,  and  thousands.  Ex.  : — 2407  x  369. 
Here  most  children  would  say  that  they  multiplied  first  by  9 


ARITHMETIC.  1 47 


(units) ;  second  by  6  (units) ;  third  by  3  (units).  But,  in 
truth,  the  2407  will  be  multiplied  by  9,  60,  and  300. 

It  will  also  be  advisable,  at  first,  to  supply  the  ciphers 
that  are  generally  omitted  when  multiplying  by  tens  and 
hundreds. 

As  soon  as  the  tables  are  tlioroughly  known,  there  will  be  no 
trouble  in  getting  children  to  work  even  long  multiplication 
5ums  with  complete  accuracy.  It  must  be  pointed  out  that 
the  first  figure  of  a  line  must  invariably  be  placed  under  the 
figure  multiplied  by. 

In  division,  any  number  below  a  million  may  be  used  for  the 
-dividend,  with  such  composite  divisors  as  32,  36,  48,  49,  54. 

A  few  easy  problems — involving  (i)  multiplication,  (2)  di- 
vision, (3)  both — may  be  given. 

Sixth  Course. — Plenty  of  practice  must  be  afforded  in 
all  the  tables  hitherto  learnt ;  and  the  shillings'  table  carried 
to  2005.  =  ;^io.  The  children  should  also  have  some  know- 
ledge of  gallons  and  pecks. 

In  notation  and  numeration  the  teacher  should  keep  to  six 
figures,  unless  she  considers  that  the  children  are  sufficiently 
advanced  to  read  numbers  of  seven  figures. 

Quite  half  the  sums  now  given  should  be  of  the  nature  of 
problems. 

Let  the  children  have  plenty  of  practice  in  multiplying  and 
■dividing  by  factors. 

Multiplication  by  |  and  J  is  not  difficult  if  the  principle  is 
taught  by  mental  exercises  and  simple  examples  on  the  board. 
Any  child  can  see  that  6  multiplied  by  two  and  a  half  must  be 
twice  6  plus  the  half  of  6. 


Arithmetic  in  Standard  III. 
Introductory  Remarks.— (a)  The  arithmetical  tables 
will  consist  chiefly  of  the  extended  Multiplication  table,  of  the 
Money  tables,  and  also  of  the  Weights  and  Measures  as  pre- 


148  ARITHMETIC. 


paratory  to  the  work  of  the  next  standard.  The  ran.fje  of 
arithmetic  for  Standard  IV.  is  so  extensive,  that  it  should 
be  Hghtened  as  much  as  possible  by  getting  the  children 
acquainted  with  all  useful  preHminaries.  The  tables  should' 
be  well  illustrated  by  the  help  of  coins,  weights,  and  measures.. 

(6)  Besides  the  mental  questions  that  naturally  arise  from 
the  tables,  and  those  which  should  precede  all  the  arithmetic 
lessons,  there  ought  now  to  be  about  two  lessons  weekly  for 
special  training  in  certain  quick  methods  of  working  sums, 
mentally. 

(c)  In  the  regular  standard  work,  there  are  two  new  depart- 
ments to  consider,  viz.,  reduction  of  money,  and  addition  and 
subtraction  of  money — the  former  being  preparatory  to  the 
complete  understanding  of  the  latter.  The  Code  does  not 
mention  reduction  of  money,  but  it  is  advisable  to  teach  it,  as 
being  the  necessary  foundation  of  all  the  compound  rules. 


Reduction. 

It  is  possible  to  make  reduction  very  attractive.  How  is 
it,  then,  that  it  is  so  often  regarded  as  a  sort  of  bug-bear  by 
both  teachers  and  learners  ?  It  needs  to  be  brought  home  by 
some  simple  expedient ;  instead  of  which,  children  are  often 
talked  to  for  twenty  minutes  at  a  stretch,  and  yet  only  look 
all  the  more  bewildered  as  to  what  is  meant  by  "  reducing." 

The  Meaning  of  Reduction.— In  the  first  place  let 
the  teacher  make  every  child  understand  that  to  reduce  money 
only  means  to  change  it  from  one  denomination  to  another : 
i.e.,  to  change  its  form,  not  its  value ;  that,  when  they  go  out 
with  a  shilling  and  get  it  changed  into  twelve  pence,  and  when 
they  take  out  twelve  pence  and  ask  some  shopman  to  change 
it  for  a  silver  shilling,  they  have  done  a  sum  in  reduction — 
they  first  reduced  that  shilling  to  twelve  pence,  and  then  they 
reduced  twelve  pence  to  a  shilling. 


ARITHMETIC.  I49 


A  perfect  knowledgre  of  the  English  Coins 
indispensable, — The  children  should  be  made  famiHar 
with  all  our  current  money.  This  is  a  matter  often  neglected, 
but  it  is  inexcusable  indolence  in  a  teacher.  The  value  of 
several  coins  is  very  confusing  to  the  young ;  and  the  only  way 
to  make  the  subject  clear,  is  to  shew  them  over  and  over 
again  the  value  in  money  of  half-a-crown,  a  florin,  etc.,  and 
allow  them  to  make  up  each  coin  with  money  of  different 
•denominations. 

Varied  Exercises  with  Coins. — It  is  not  very  diffi- 
cult to  make  a  coin-frame  with  a  few  farthings,  pence,  three- 
penny bits,  shilHngs  (or  what  will  represent  them),  strung  on 
wire  ;  but  a  handful  of  counters  on  the  table  is  better  than 
nothing;  or  even  the  ball-frame  may  be  of  service  for  the 
purpose.  But,  at  any  rate,  let  the  children  have  something 
tangible  wherewith  to  illustrate  the  lesson. 

The  counters  or  balls  may  be  imagined  to  be  any  kind 
of  money,  for  the  time  being,  and  can  then  be  "reduced" 
before  the  children's  eyes  to  some  other  denomination. 

For  instance,  the  teacher  may  say  : — "  Come,  children,  let 
lis  suppose  these  counters  are  all  pennies,  how  am  I  to  change 
them  into  shillings?"  She  would  then  make  them  help  her 
to  separate  them  into  groups  of  twelve,  for  each  of  which  she 
would  quickly  substitute  a  shilhng  piece.  '•  But,  see,  I  have 
seven  over,  can  I  make  up  a  shilhng  with  them?"  "No." 
■"  Then  what  must  they  remain  ?  "     "  Pence." 

Next  the  same  counters  might  represent  threepenny  bits, 
and  so  on. 

By  this  simple  means,  the  difficulty  w^hich  seems  so  for- 
midable to  young  minds  when  learning  this  rule,  is  entirely 
surmounted.  We  should  strongly  advise  continual  coin 
practice  for  a  week  or  two  before  the  class  is  permitted  to 
work  reduction  sums  on  their  slates.  In  the  same  way,  the 
reduction  of  avoirdupois  and  other  weights  and  measures  may 
be  illustrated. 


150  ARITHMETIC. 


The  Points  to  be  Decided  in  Reduction, — In  the 

working  of  reduction  the  chief  point  for  the  child  to  decide  is 
— "Am  I  to  multiply  or  divide  ?"  Children  are  usually  told 
"to  multiply,  if  the  given  terms  are  to  be  reduced  to  a  lower 
denomination ;  to  divide,  if  a  higher  denomination  is  required. "^ 
But  they  will  never  understand  these  directions  until  they  are 
carefully  taught  the  ascending  and  descending  scale  of  value  in 
each  instance.  They  have  not  been  accustomed  to  handle 
money,  and  what  seems  natural  and  easy  to  us,  is  vague  and 
dark  to  them.  The  teacher  can  help  to  clear  up  the  mystery 
by  bidding  them  notice  whether  the  given  terms  will  become 
more  or  fewer  in  member  by  the  change. 

Reduction  also  may  be  made  much  clearer  by  telling  the 
children  to  write  the  denomination  obtained  by  each  step  in  a 
reduction  sum,  thus  : — 

Reduce  twenty  shillings  to  farthings. 

5. 
20 
12 

240  pence. 

4 


960  farthings,  ans. 


Compound  Rules. 

Method  of  Teaching:  Money  Sums.— The  method 
of  working  addition  and  subtraction  of  money  is  but  an  ex- 
tension of  the  principles  of  simple  addition  and  subtraction. 
In  the  latter,  the  scholars  have  been  deaUng  with  units,  tens, 
hundreds,  thousands ;  in  the  former,  they  nuist  be  taught  to 
deal  with  farthings,  pence,  shillings,  and  pounds,  and  to  pass 
readily  from  one  to  the  other.  The  great  difference  between 
the  two  classes  of  sums  is,    that   in  the  simple  rules  there 


ARITHMETIC.  I5I 


is  only  one  multiplier  or  divisor  (viz.,  lo)  necessary  to  mark 
the  changes,  whereas  in  the  case  of  money  we  must  use  several 
different  numbers  for  the  purpose.  Still  the  principle  of  the 
operation  is  the  same  in  both  cases.  As  in  simple  addition 
we  add  up  units  or  tens  and  divide  by  lo  to  pass  to  tens  or 
hundreds,  so,  in  the  addition  of  money,  we  add  up  the  farthings 
and  divide  by  4  to  pass  to  pence ;  we  add  up  the  pence  and 
divide  by  12  to  pass  to  shillings,  and  so  on. 

Long^  Division. — This  is  complicated  work  for  Standard 
III.,  and  the  teacher  must  be  content  to  advance  step  by  step. 
For  some  time  the  divisor  should  not  exceed  two  figures — 
keeping  the  units'  figure  considerably  below  the  tens'  figure. 
Children  must  be  trained  to  put  a  neat  dot  under  the 
figures  they  "  bring  down,"  and  not  to  forget  to  place  a 
nought  in  the  quotient,  when,  having  brought  down  one 
figure,  they  find  the  divisor  will  not  "go"  until  another  is 
brought  down. 

Division  sums  ought  to  be  proved  by  multiplying  the  quo- 
tient by  the  divisor  and  adding  in  the  remainder.  This  will 
help  the  children  to  reahse  that  division  is  the  reverse  process 
of  multiplication,  a  fact  which  it  is  important  to  impress  upon 
them  by  all  possible  means. 

Problems  in  the  simple  rules,  and  in  compound  addition 
and  subtraction,  must  be  frequently  given;  success  depends, 
to  a  great  extent,  on  their  careful  selection  and  graduation. 

Teach  the  Principle  of  Fractions  early. — Frac- 
tional arithmetic  would  not  present  such  enormous  difficulties 
if  it  were  led  up  to  in  the  lower  standards.  The  principle 
may  be  taught  by  dividing  before  the  class,  such  objects  as 
a  cake,  an  orange,  apple,  or  large  turnip,  and  shelving  into  how 
many  equal  parts  it  may  be  divided,  and  what  is  meant  by 
i,  i,  y\,  f.,  etc.  Lines  may  be  drawn  and  divided  on  the 
board,  and  the  children  exercised  in  finding  out  the  third? 
sixth,  or  twelfth  of  a  shilling  or  sovereign.     Fractions  may  be 


1^2 


ATvITHMETIC. 


prepared  for  by  associating  division  with  multiplication, 
follows : — 

Three  tens  arQ 30 

How  many  tens  in... 

How  many  threes  in 

What  is  the  third  of 

Two-thirds  of 

One-tenth  of    

Five-tenths  of 

N.B. — To  work  the  scheme  that  follow: 
be  kept  for  separate  lessons,  while  the  compound  and  simple 
rules  should  be  taught  on  alternate  days.  If  it  is  not  found 
possible  during  the  early  stages  to  combine  reduction,  addi- 
tion, and  subtraction  in  one  lesson,  reduction  and  addition 
may  be  taken  on  one  occasion,  and  reduction  and  subtraction 
on  another. 

The  sums  must  now  be  worked  occasionally  on  paper. 


s,  the  tables  should 


>5 

by  com- 
bers    to 

1,  41,  51. 

c. 

ving  div. 

lumbers, 
14  times. 
3,  53,  73, 

div.  and 

80,  76,  66, 

h  units  fig. 

1  tens. 

fi  div.  and 

ng  15  and 
y   101    up 
div.,   add. 

17  and 

tens  fig. 
lundreds 

t 

1  using  any 
ow    thou- 

n  by  any 

O 

ilKl. 

"•o'*      J= 

-    :S~    > 

- 

> 

as  >,    .t! 

t  lll.i 

1  "  6  . 

l^^l-"^ 

.2^     -l 

llifsll 

1  liil 

J    J   ci; 

1  l^'-^-^ 

Ml'?  "c  M  1 

§•-5  S^  §  § 

z 

o 

H 
< 
U 

J 

J 

3    »j    d: 

J        J 

II  1 

<u  !:  c  ~  '^ 

SI  1 

SB'S    -2  ■ 

S      r/3      CL 

Una      -0 
•g§        S 

8=    .^^ 

2Sg 

O 
Z 

< 

43             "6 

=■5.2     3 
2f  1  =1 

2      c/3 

1  ^  4 

4J       u^        o 

S     c«     ^ 

3      qj      <:« 

«^  Si; 

-o-  .•  -§ 

nil 

•*       V5,C 

i    "^  -" 

■III 

ll^l 

ill 

c      c      rt.S 

1      1 
c      c 

^  1  ll 

=^     S     Q 

III  II 

■M  1 1 

S         <1     B 

2       i 

lliil 

7. 

O 

D 
Q 

a 

1     S 
ill 

0.5  o  o 

^^  =  .   ■• 
=2:^  - 

r         0 

i  ^   P 
2  2  ess.- 

1  ^^le 

8     8 

s*   i 
Is. 

sSg2 

0       CL 

0  ./T  , 

■"  c 

Ilk 

|2  2 

1  ^^^ 

d             0 

d       rt 

' 

•2     ^  ^-SS 

3     II  ;2;  II 

2     'f^a'S 

•2       .S 

. 

6     11  w  " 

s   ^i   -H 

s    %« 

■&                     \ 

S 

§ 

J  %i 

i^s^lJ 

111 

1 11 

2«          \ 

< 

I  :S2 

S     ^2  So 

3        -So 

Jl 

^  41 

SScScilc^ 

SSfSt^C^ 

S2c2^c^" 

ss^-^ 

^6^ 

^ 

>■ 

^ 

"^     1 

1 

> 

J 

> 

-a  "  c 

4J     1)     t> 

IP 
=      03 

lis 
f   o   " 


154  ARITHMETIC. 


Arithmetic  in  Standard  IV. 

Introductory  Remarks. — The  arithmetic  of  this  Stan- 
dard is  rather  complicated,  and  requires  much  discretion  and 
skill  in  its  treatment. 

Drilling  in  aliquot  parts  is  very  desirable ;  not  only  does  it 
afford  good  mental  exercise  in  elementary  fractions,  but  it  is 
also  preparatory  to  the  rule  of  Practice  required  in  the  next 
standard. 

The  various  tables  must  be  constantly  repeated  during  the 
whole  of  the  school  year. 

Mental  arithmetic  should  include  easy  reduction  of  money^ 
weights  and  measures,  simple  questions  about  wages  by  the 
day,  week,  and  month,  and  bill  items. 

Reduction. — As  the  pupils  have  been  previously  prac- 
tised in  reduction  of  money,  they  will  be  somewhat  prepared 
to  go  on  with  that  of  avoirdupois  weight.  They  must  not 
be  kept  exclusively  to  either  descending  or  ascending  re- 
duction for  long  together,  but  the  two  should  be  intermixed 
so  as  to  necessitate  thinking.    Instead  of  always  using  the  term 

reduce,  say  ^^  Change  from to ;"     *'How  many are 

there  in ,"  etc.     At  the  first  lessons,  let  the  scholars  pass 

from  one  denomination  to  the  next  above  or  below  it. 

A  thorough  teacher  will  give  plenty  of  practice  in  the  first 
four  rules  as  applied  to  weights  and  measures,  as  well  as  in 
the  reduction  exacted  by  the  Code.  Problems  ought  to  be 
given  as  much  as  possible  all  the  year  through. 

In  Standard  IV.  very  easy  addition  and  subtraction  of 
vulgar  fractions  may  with  advantage  be  taught. 

It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  an  initial  acquaintance  with 
the  metric  system  is  now  necessary  for  Standard  IV.,  and 
that  long  tots,  carefully  graded  in  difficulty,  must  be  used 
from  the  third  standard  upwards. 


roblems  in  the  simple  rules 
o.   addition  and  subn.  of 

money., 
o.       do.      Avoir,  weight 

sub. 

loney 
Long 

roblems  involv.  mult,  and 

addn.  of  money. 
o.  div.  and  add.  of  money, 
o.  division  and  subn.    of 

Capacity  measure. 

roblems  involv.  mult,  and 

sub.  of  money, 
o.  div.  and  sub.  of  money, 
o.    addition  and  subn.  of 

Square  measure. 

lems. 
mea- 
Iving 

sub. 

m 

S 

ca 
§ 

roblems  in  add.  and 

of  money. 
0.  mult,  and  div.  of  m 
o.  add.  and  sub.  of 

measure. 

edn.  of  money  prob 

robs,  of  weights  and 

sures  and  time,  invo 

multn.  and  addn. 

o.        db.      div.  and 

> 

§ 
O 

PhQ     Q 

PLh      QQ 

PU     «Q 

S     QP 

«0h         Q 

< 

5>  i 

g  c 

S  tfl 

SS 

-  c 

3  C 

•*^  o 

■-3  o 

s:2 

.!2 

<*-  '^3    t   ; 

<*-  'S 

«.-  "S 

•T3*J2 

O   rt 

o  rt   J  r 

o  rt   :  : 

c  rt  ~  : 

.  c 

c 

.  c 

rt  a 

s'-- 

3n  and  subn, 
denomi 
me  oi  four 
„        all 

3n  and  subn. 
denomi 
me  of  four 
„        all 

3n  and  subn, 
denomi 

me  of  four 
all 

subn.,  mult, 
f  Iwo  denomi 
me  of  four 
all 

.2 -a 

^3 
3,2 

0-2 

tulate. 

rt 

■M     ^ 

:5    ^ 

'5     « 

i  I 

So. 

a 

''O       w 

'O      V 

■-0      <u 

T3   « 

o 

'V      jn    Z 

■a     J3    * 

'O       J=     = 

•a     j=    - 

•o 

<u 

<     H 

<     H 

<     H 

<     H 

< 

f^ 

I 

i 

§■ 

s 

a     u5  ^ 

«• 

Sid 

.o 

o 

,=      g-i 

« 

> 

by  2, 
factoi 

oney 

II 

5s 

by 

figure 
:tion. 

iplier 

efigu 

;s.     Si 

3 

2^  . 

4)    jj    « 

z 

o 

o      5 

Xi  -i-t 

§  II 

mult 

thre 
:  line 

s 

-O  rt       O 

t.  by  tw 
actors. 
;  additL 
on. 

'^,A^^ 

^     ^> 

^.^5^§ 

!?l| 

•-  c 

tiplic 
gurei 
sion 
and 

t.  wii 
OOO. 
sion 
,  twe 

t.  by 
sion 
,  sixl 
racti 

111 

3¥l 

ill 

Mul 

fi 

Divi 

Tots 

111 

Mul 
Divi 
Tots 
Subt 

£21 

2  «-: 

fcXl 

•Is' 

« 

« 

5 

Q 
U 

/^/V.  tosov.  i-sov.,crn., 
„    3d.,     6d.     pieces, 

pence,    half-pence,    a 

farthings. 
voird7ipois. 

r^t;«j  and  i-Croiuns 
sov.,  ^-sov.  to  shillin 
pence,  6d.,  3d.  pieces. 

ry  measure. 

lis 

-;.o-g 

fill 

Sovereign  and  i-Soveret 
to  pence,  6d.,3d.  piec 
id.  and  id. 

Square  measure. 

ny  kind  of  Money, 
voirdupois  and  Dry  Mi 

sure, 
ime. 

Co                ^ 

Cj         Q     1 

^     ^3 

^^.     ^ 

^^ 

—       • 

-  .     .    1 

-.       .^  . 

1 

^" 

repetition  of  al 
previously  learnt 
larts  of  3d.,  6d.,  1/ 
do.     Avoirdupois 

t  repetition   of   al 
s  previously  learnt 
parts  of  1/3, 1/4, 2/. 
do.    Long  measure. 

Ition  of   al 
usly  learnt. 
2/6,  3/4,  4/ 
ry  measure, 

ition   of  al 
usly  learnt. 
6/8, 10/,  20/ 
2  (for  boys. 
Long  meas 

tion    of  al 
lUsly  learnt, 
money, 
of  time. 

tion  of  al 
usly  learnt, 
money, 
and  Meas. 

repeti 
previoi 
arts  of 
..       D; 

t    repeti 
s  previo 
!.  of  5/.,  1 
measun 
oir.  and 
:irls.) 

repeti 
previa 
arts  of 
do. 

repeti 
previoi 
arts  of 
eights 

■"  <«  a  " 

*j  y;  a 

-w  m  a> 

Sii  ■" 

c   <0  ^ 

c  u  ^-o 

C    U   ^      .    >    OJU 

C  <u  ^ 

c  o  „SS 

M§ 

^1§ 

l^§ 

11  '^^<a 

53  o 

«   rt   3 

^1§^ 

^^  .^  A 

=  *^    'S  A. 

c  S  a-  . 

c  -  c<  .    .  O 

c  -  cr  , 

c  «  a*  . 

O      —  o 

O       U3   O 

o     :r  o 

o     —  o  o 

o     —  o 

o     —  o 

o    <a 

U    .<3Q 

CJ     ^Q 

U     <QQ 

CJ     <Q\ 

> 

i 

_; 

HH 

'^ 

> 

> 

o 

156  ARITHMETIC. 


Arithmetic  in  Standard  V, 

Introductory  Remarks. — The  arithmetic  of  this  Stan- 
dard is  comprised  under  the  heads  of  Practice,  Bills,  Unitary 
Problems,  and  Vulgar  Fractions. 

All  arithmetical  tables  must  be  kept  up  by  regular  repetition. 
The  mental  arithmetic  is  of  increased  importance,  and  should 
be  made  largely  auxiliary  to  the  scheme  of  lessons  suggested 
for  Standard  V.  Questions  suitable  for  mental  calculation 
should  be  given  under  each  of  the  four  heads  just  mentioned, 
and  also  on  the  measures  and  multiples  of  different  numbers. 

Exercises  and  problems  on  the  back  work  should  be  set 
occasionally,  although  the  rules  now  taught  give  much 
practice  in  the  different  kinds  of  multiplication,  division,  and 
reduction. 

Practice. — In  practice  especially  the  teacher  must  not  be 
afraid  of  a  little  over -statement  by  the  children  in  the  way  of 
writing  particulars  of  each  process,  and  the  value  of  the  figures 
they  put  down. 

In  learning  practice,  short  sums  must  be  given  at  the  outset, 
and  fractional  remainders  avoided.  The  value  of  each  line 
should  always  be  thoroughly  understood  and  written  out,  and 
different  ways  of  working  one  sum  be  now  and  then  practised. 
The  children  should  be  trained  to  take  the  smallest  number 
of  aliquot  parts  possible  (consistent  with  ease  in  working), 
and  not  to  keep  merely  to  the  J  and  },  as  is  often  the  case. 
The  first  few  lessons  should  be  devoted  to  the  very  useful 
exercise  of  drawing  out  sketches  of  different  practice  sums, 
until  the  children  find  it  easy  to  choose  the  best  aliquot 
parts.  To  assist  them  in  this,  the  table  of  aliquot  parts 
should  be  placed  before  the  class.  Sometimes  a  sum  of  money 
should  be  given  for  breaking  up  into  different  sets  of  aliquot 
parts,  and  the  class  asked  to  name  the  set  they  think  the 
most  expeditious  for  working.  Thus,  185.  8|^.  may  be  broken 
up  into  10S.  +  55.4-3S.  ^(l.  +  /[d.  +  l(L+\d.'  or  105. +  65.  8<:/.  + 


ARITHMETIC.  I57 


15.  8d.  +  ^d.  +  y.  +  id.;  or  ios.  +  .^s.  +  ^s.  +  8d.  +  ld.  +  ^d.;  or 
I05.  +  55.  +  2s.  6d.  +  is.  +  2hd.+-ld.,  etc.  The  same  kind  of  ex- 
ercise may  be  used  with  weights  and  measures.  In  short,  the 
rule  of  practice  should  be  made  the  most  of  both  by  the  teacher 
and  pupils. 

Rule    of  Three    by    the    Unitary   Method.  — In 

learning  the  Unitary  Method,  children  are  generally  puzzled 
how  to  make  the  initial  statement.  There  is  no  magic  recipe 
for  solving  this  difficulty.  The  best  plan  is  to  begin  with 
simple  examples,  set  good  models  before  the  children,  and 
train  their  intelligence  by  suitable  questions.  The  words  for 
commencing  the  statement  of  a  problem  are  indicated  in  the 
problem  itself.  Cancelling  conduces  greatly  to  quick  working, 
but  the  children  should  be  carefully  instructed  in  its  object 
and  value.  We  must  remember  that  in  unitary  problems  we 
multiply  by  one  number  and  divide  by  another,  and  these  are 
usually  placed  in  a  fractional  form,  the  multiplier  forming  the 
numerator  and  the  divisor  the  denominator.  Troublesome 
remainders  should  be  avoided  in  the  problems  given  during 
the  first  three  or  four  courses. 

Rule  of  Three  by  Statement. — In  the  fifth  and 
sixth  courses  the  Rule  of  Three  has  been  introduced,  partly  for 
the  sake  of  those  teachers  who  wish  their  scholars  to  be  able 
to  work  by  both  methods  in  this  standard,  and  partly  to 
further  the  work  of  Standard  VI. 

In  teaching  the  Rule  of  Three  by  statement,  let  the  children 
ask  themselves — 

(i)  In  what  denomination  should  the  answer  be?  then  let 
them  place  that  term  which  is  in  the  same  denomination  to^ 
the  right  hand — making  it  the  third  term. 

(2)  Will  the  answer  be  less  than  the  third  term,  or  more?' 
A  Httle  reflection  will  tell  them  this. 

If  more,  then  the  higher  of  the  other  terms  must  be  put  in 
the  second  place  ;  if  less,  then  the  lower  term  must  be  in  the 
second  place. 


158  ARITHMETIC. 


This  is  the  simplest  way  of  commencing  the  exceedingly 
-difficult  process  of  a  Rule  of  Three  sum.  If  taught  thus,  it  is 
easy  to  explain  the  principle  later  on. 

Blackboard  Practice  Essential. — Let  it  be  again 
and  again  impressed  on  every  teacher,  that,  to  have  plenty  of 
blackboard  demonstration  throughout  the  school  is  the  short 
cut  to  good  arithmetic.  The  younger  teachers  need  con- 
tinual instruction  in  this  part  of  the  work,  and  will  probably 
seek  to  evade  it  unless  the  head-master  or  mistress  is  firm  on 
the  point. 

In  no  rules  is  it  more  necessary  to  work  blackboard  sums 
than  in  reduction  and  the  Rule  of  Three ;  for  though  the  child- 
ren may  often  produce  the  correct  answer,  yet  they  will  have 
arrived  at  it  by  clumsy,  roundabout  ways.  One  great  use 
■of  instruction  in  arithmetic,  is  to  learn  the  quickest  and  easiest 
method  of  carrying  out  the  various  operations.  Brief  modes 
of  working  fractions,  proportion,  and  interest  sums,  are  nu- 
merous, and  cannot  be  discovered  by  the  children  if  they  are 
left  to  work  alone  and  unaided,  except  for  a  few  hurried  words 
of  explanation. 

It  is  grievous  to  see  boys  and  girls  w^asting  their  time  poring 
over  books  and  test-cards  which  they  do  not  in  the  least  com- 
prehend, while  an  experienced  teacher  contents  herself  with 
walking  round  and  marking  each  slate  with  a  large  cross  or 
capital  R,  as  the  case  may  be. 

If  inspectors,  on  their  visits  without  notice,  would  ascertain 
how  much  time  is  devoted  daily  to  careful  mental  arithmetic 
and  blackboard  practice,  they  would  be  able  to  form  a  very 
fair  idea  of  the  ability  and  energy  of  the  teaching  staff. 

Bills  of  Parcels. — With  regard  to  bills,  the  children 
require  to  be  taught  not  only  expeditious  methods  of  working 
the  several  items,  but  also  the  proper  form  of  beginning, 
dating,  and  receipting  for  payment.  These  sums  can  be 
made  to  require  much  calculation,   but  for   this  standard 


ARITHMETIC.  I59 


accuracy,  neatness,  and  readiness  in  working  bills  of  moderate 
difficulty,  are  the  main  requisites.  Really  necessary  working 
should  be  shewn  by  the  side.  The  bills  given  should  be  those 
of  grocers',  drapers',  butchers',  bakers',  stationers',  painters', 
and  others  likely  to  occur  in  actual  business.  It  is  of  real 
•consequence  that  scholars  should  be  trained  from  the  first  to 
work  bills  of  parcels  by  practice,  avoiding  the  turning  of  each 
item  into  a  little  multiplication  sum. 

Fractions  form  a  very  special  feature  in  the  arithmetic  of 
Standard  V.,  and  should  be  taught  with  the  utmost  care,  so 
that  the  children  may,  from  the  beginning,  get  clear  ideas  of 
the  reason  of  the  various  processes  of  adding,  subtracting,  and 
so  on.  The  different  steps  in  the  teaching  are  plainly  in- 
dicated for  the  six  courses,  but  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  avail  herself  of  lines,  diagrams,  and  objects,  to 
illustrate  the  equality  of  |,  f ,  f ;  of  j-\,  f,  f ;  the  sum  of  f  +  ^, 
of  f  +  ^  ;  the  difference  between  i  and  i,  etc. 

N.B. — Great  attention  should  be  given  to  the  neat  appear- 
ance of  sums.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  let  children  copy  them, 
when  correctly  worked,  into  their  note-book,  attention  being 
paid  to  right  placing  and  clear  statement. 


^S  5  q- 


ARITHMETIC.  l6l 


Arithmetic  in  Standards  VI.  and  VII. 

Introductory  Remarks. — The  time  for  the  instruction 
of  the  sixth  standard  in  arithmetic  must  be  carefully  econo- 
mised, for  there  is  much  to  be  done.  If  the  teachers  of  the 
previous  standards  have  acted  wisely,  the  children  will  be 
proficient  in  vulgar  fractions  and  proportion,  and  will  know 
something  of  the  decimal  notation.  This  will  lighten  the 
work,  and  make  it  possible  at  once  to  proceed  to  the  rules 
now  specially  required. 

Great  attention  must  be  given  to  assigning  the  reason  of  the 
rules  taught,  and  also  for  any  brief  methods  of  working  intro- 
duced. The  pupils  will  require  much  practice  in  problematic 
arithmetic  of  various  kinds.  Questions — not  necessarily  in- 
tricate ones  —  should  be  worked  about  joint  and  separate 
labour  by  the  day  and  hour ;  the  discharge  and  filling  of 
pipes ;  clock  sums ;  motion  round  a  circle  and  on  parallel 
lines  ;  about  trains,  rowing,  running  and  walking  matches,  etc. 

Cards  should  be  used  as  a  Test  only. — Text-books 
and  test-cards  are  useful  in  their  place.  The  former  may  be 
bought  by  the  elder  scholars  for  home-lessons,  or  utilised  to 
fill  up  the  time  of  forward  children  in  school.  The  latter  are 
useful  as  tests  only  ;  it  is  a  lazy  device  to  use  them  continually. 
Nothing  can  possibly  make  up  for  skilful  demonstration  and 
the  contact  of  the  teacher's  mind  with  that  of  the  children. 

Trusting  to  cards  and  books  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  fail- 
ures in  Standards  VI.  and  VII.  at  examinations.  The 
dismayed  but  careless  teacher  says  —  "Why,  they  have 
worked  far  more  difficult  sums  than  these."  True  ;  but  how  ? 
By  some  mechanical  process  which  failed  them  in  the  hour  of 
need — owing  partly  to  their  want  of  confidence  in  their  own 
methods. 

And  lastly,  let  it  be  impressed  on  the  teachers  of  these 
elder  scholars,  how  important  it  is  to  give  them  regular 
practice  in  expeditious  and  intelligent  methods  of  working  the. 

M 


l62  ARITHMETIC. 


simpler  rules — bearing  in  mind  that  it  is  general  arithmetic 
and  riot  stocks  and  averages,  which  will  be  of  practical 
service  to  them  through  life. 

When  a  boy  of  thirteen  is  seen  to  work  addition  and  multi- 
pHcation  by  the  same  childish  method  first  taught  him,  it 
proves  that  there  must  be  something  seriously  defective  in  the 
system  pursued. 

The  Metric  System. — As  the  scholars  in  Standards  V., 
VI.,  and  VII.  are  expected  to  have  a  practical  knowledge  of 
the  advantages  of  the  metric  system,  it  may  be  advisable  to 
say  a  few  words  here  on  these  advantages. 

In  the  first  place,  the  substitution  of  this  for  the  English 
system  of  coins,  weights  and  measures  would  much  simplify 
and  lighten  the  labour  of  all  arithmetical  operations  which  in- 
volve buying  and  selling,  weighing  and  measuring.  At  present 
much  time,  which  might  be  advantageously  employed  in 
learning  other  subjects,  has  to  be  spent  in  becoming  familiar 
with  our  complicated  arithmetical  tables,  which  contain  units 
expressed  by  the  various  numbers  2,  3,  4,  5 J,  6,  8,  10, 12,  etc. 
Thus:  2  pints = I  quart,  3  feet=i  yard,  4  farthings  =:i^.,  5^ 
yards  =:  I  pole,  6  feet  =  i  fathom. 

But  in  the  metric  system  only  one  basis  is  used,  viz.,  10. 
This  is  the  same  as  that  employed  in  the  ordinary  abstract 
and  concrete  modes  of  numeration  and  notation.  Conse- 
quently to  pass  from  one  denomination  to  another  only  involves 
using  the  customary  notation,  or  moving  a  dot  to  the  left  or 
right  :  whereas,  in  our  cumbrous  English  system,  there  is 
often  much  multiplying  required,  and  various  troublesome 
remainders  to  account  for.  Not  only  are  our  money,  weight, 
and  measure  systems  very  different  from  those  of  other 
nations,  but  the  two  latter  vary  somewhat  even  in  different 
parts  of  our  own  country. 

Advantages  to  Commerce. — The  metric  system  would 
be  a  gain   both  to  commerce  and   science.      It   cannot  be 


ARITHMETIC  I63 


disputed  that  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  decimal  coinage, 
would  much  simplify  the  commercial  transactions  between 
nations. 

Advantages  in  Science. — In  scientific  calculations, 
the  metric  system  has  already  been  largely  introduced,  and 
so  the  value  of  weights  and  measures  mentioned  in  works  on 
science  are  easily  comprehended,  without  the  necessity  of 
■changing  them  into  those  of  the  different  countries  in  which 
the  books  may  be  read. 

At  present  the  settlement  of  accounts  between  merchants 
and  traders  residing  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  America, 
ogives  rise  to  much  inconvenience,  not  only  in  deciding  the 
precise  value  of  the  various  coins,  but  also  the  exact  equiva- 
lents of  the  different  weights  and  measures  used. 

Moreover,  in  our  present  system,  there  is  no  kind  of  relation 
between  the  various  ways  of  measuring  and  weighing,  as  there 
is  in  the  metric  system.  The  latter  is  of  French  invention, 
and  takes  its  name  from  the  metre — the  foundation  unit  for  all 
calculations  relating  to  money,  weight  and  measurement  in 
France.  The  other  units  are  the  are^  the  stere,  the  litre,  and 
.the  gramme.  The  English  equivalents  for  all  these  ought  to 
■be  learnt  by  the  sixth  and  seventh  standards,  as  the  words 
are  of  no  use  in  themselves.  All  can  perceive  the  troublesome 
nature  of  the  calculations  which  are  now  needed  to  pass  from 
French  to  English  or  from  English  to  French  measures  and 
weights.  The  difficulty  is  not  lessened  when  other  countries 
are  taken  into  account ;  whereas  if  the  metric  system — which 
is  the  only  natural  one — were  universally  adopted,  all  confusion 
and  trouble  would  disappear,  and  much  valuable  time  be 
saved.  The  main  difficulty  in  the  introduction  of  this  system 
would  be  that,  while  the  change  was  going  on,  both  it  and  that 
of  the  country  itself  would  have  to  be  used. 

(N.B. — The  use  of  the  metric  system  in  this  country  was 
.made  legal  in  1864.) 


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ARITHMETIC.  165 


Having  now  gone  through  the  work  required  in  the  various 
standards,  we  would  add  one  or  two  hints  that  will  be  found 
useful. 

Correction  of  Sums. — The  examination  ol  arithmetic 
is  very  necessary.  As  much  as  possible  should  be  done  by 
passing  round  while  the  scholars  are  at  work,  and — for  the 
rest — the  sums  should  be  shown  at  the  end.  Arithmetic 
given  for  home  lessons  must  invariably  be  corrected,  and 
those  sums  which  are  wrong  done  over  again. 

The  working  of  sums  should  never  be  erased  (nor  working 
on  scrap-paper  allowed),  since  it  is  most  desirable  that  the 
teacher  should  notice  errors,  lengthy  methods,  and  untidy 
work.  ,  ■ 

Teach  all  New  or  Imperfectly-knov/n  Rules  on 
a  System : — 

(i)  Explain  the  rule  in  few  words. 

(2)  Give  easy  mental  examples. 

(3)  Work  simple  sums  on  the  blackboard,  making  the 
children  keep  pace  with  you. 

(4)  Give  the  forward  children  a  sheet  of  sums  to  work  from. 

(5)  Call  out  the  backward  ones  or  place  them  in  front,  and 
continue  to  work  with  them  on  the  board  till  they  understand 
the  method. 

(6)  See  that  every  child  understands  the  working  of  a  rule 
or  problem.  If  one  is  passed  over,  that  child  will  only  give 
double  trouble  in  the  future.  Employ  some  of  the  sharp 
scholars  to  help  the  dull  ones. 

(7)  Keep  a  keen  look-out  that  no  one  copies.  If  you  sus- 
pect a  child,  call  him  out  (without  accusing  him),  and  set  him 
a  sum  of  average  difficulty  on  the  board. 

Analyze  Problems. — The  teaching  of  a  new  problem 
should  invariably  be  prefaced  by  writing  it  on  the  board, 
reading  it  aloud,  and  ascertaining  whether  the  scholars  under- 


l66  ARITHMETIC. 


stand  the  nature  of  the  terms  used,  by  asking  them  some  such 
questions  as  these  : — 

What  have  we  to  find  out  ?  What  information  does  the 
question  give  us  ?  How  must  we  set  to  work  to  find  the 
answer  ? 

Having  helped  the  children  to  give  satisfactory  replies  to- 
these  questions,  the  whole  process  should  be  gone  through 
before  them,  and  stated  with  the  utmost  precision,  accom- 
panied by  careful  arrangement. 

Lastly,  they  should  work  a  number  of  similar  examples  alone* 


Mental   Arithmetic. 

In  the  Instructions  to  Inspectors,  we  read  : — 

"  The  object  of  Mental  Arithmetic  is  to  encourage  dexterity  and  quick- 
ness in  dealing  with  figures,  and  to  anticipate,  by  means  of  rapid  and 
varied  oral  questions  with  small  numbers,  the  longer  problems  which 
have  afterwards  to  be  worked  out  in  writing.  It  is  obvious  that  this 
general  object  cannot  be  attained  if  the  exercises  are  confined  to  a 

few  rules  for  computing  dozens  and  scores Oral  practice 

should  be  given  in  all  the  ordinary  processes  of  arithmetic,  and  should 
be  so  varied  as  to  furnish  as  many  different  forms  of  exercise  as 
possible  in  concrete  as  well  as  abstract  numbers,  and  in  the  frac- 
tional parts  of  money,  weights,  and  measures." 

There  could  not  be  a  better  guide  than  the -above  directions 
for  the  teaching  of  the  science  of  number  mentally.  It  should 
cover  the  whole  area  of  elementary  arithmetic,  lead  up  to  every 
rule,  prepare  the  way  for  each  class  of  problem,  and  familiarise 
the  children  with  countless  difficulties  almost  before  they  have 
discovered  that  they  are  difficulties. 

Mental  Arithmetic  Lessons  should  be  Short. — 

It  may  be  taken  as  one  sure  sign  of  a  well-managed  school 
and  a  skilful  teacher,  when  mental  exercises  form  part  of  the 
daily  course  in  every  standard.      Too  long  a   time  at   once 


ARITHMETIC.  167 


should  never  be  devoted  to  this  work,  for,  if  the  questioning  is 
as  lively  and  searching  as  it  ought  to  be,  it  involves  consider- 
able mental  strain.  Ten  minutes  twice  a  day  for  the  younger 
scholars,  and  fifteen  minutes  once  a  day  for  the  elder  ones, 
should  be  sufficient. 

How  Given. — The  chief  point  to  secure  is  that  the 
exercises  should  be  well  graduated  and  used  systematically. 
Every  teacher  should  be  supplied  with  a  book  of  good,  pro- 
gressive, practical  examples. 

The  particular  book  used  matters  little  in  comparison  with 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  used.  Young  teachers  have  a  bad 
habit  of  dipping,  hap-hazard,  into  some  collection  of  mental 
examples,  and  asking  the  children  a  few  questions  d  propos  of 
nothing. 

This  is  mere  waste  of  time,  and,  as  we  have  urged  repeatedly, 
every  moment  ought  to  be  turned  to  account.  The  head- 
teacher  should  iix  upon  the  page  or  leaflet  to  be  taken  each 
day  or  week,  and  have  it  diligently  taught,  with  abundant 
recapitulation  of  back  work,  and  the  improvising  of  extra 
examples.  There  should  be  a  weekly  examination  of  what 
has  been  learned,  at  which  the  children  should  be  questioned 
in  tttrn,  to  ascertain  that  all  have  profited. 

It  has  sometimes  been  urged  that  teachers  should  not  ask 
questions  from  a  book,  but  make  them  up  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment.  Those  who  make  the  assertion  shew  ignorance  of 
the  nature  of  this  lesson.  It  is  a  science,  and  requires  to  be 
worked  out  with  as  much  care  and  thought  as  any  other. 
Accordingly,  everyone  should  be  supplied  with  examples  on  a 
well-arranged  method,  and  learn  by  degrees  to  supplement 
these  by  similar  examples  of  their  own.  It  is  not,  however, 
till  teachers  have  had  some  experience,  that  they  can  frame 
questions  which  will  be  of  practical  benefit;  besides,  there 
are  few  lessons  that  make  such  demands  upon  their  dexterity 
and  tact,  or  that  prove  so  exhausting.  This  indeed  is  why 
so  many  yield  to  the  temptation  to  neglect  mental  arithmetic, 


l68  ARITHMETIC. 


and  substitute  for  it  the  writing  up  of  half-a-dozen  neat- 
looking  but  purposeless  sums  upon  the  board. 

Employ  Scholars  to  Question. — It  is  first-rate  prac- 
tice for  the  more  advanced  scholars  if  they  are  allowed  to 
frame  a  few  simple  questions  of  their  own,  and  ask  them  of 
the  class.  No  better  test  of  their  progress  could  be  applied, 
and  those  who  take  pains  and  shew  ability,  might  be  rewarded 
by  being  allowed  to  question  the  class  before  the  Head- 
master or  the  Managers. 

Encourage  the  Dull  Scholars. — Sharp  children  must 
not  be  allowed  to  monopolise  the  answering.  Inexperienced 
teachers  often  are  so  delighted  with  the  brilliant  replies  of 
a  few,  that  they  fail  to  notice  that  only  half  the  class  are 
attempting  to  make  the  calculations,  while  the  rest  merely 
look  on  either  unconcernedly  or  hopelessly.  This  must  not  be 
tolerated ;  and  the  teacher  ought  not  to  consider  her  duty  done, 
until  she  sees  every  child  trying  to  take  his  share. 

There  are  always  some  scholars  who  are  dull  or  timid,  and 
these  must  be  encouraged  by  easy  questions  framed  for  their 
special  benefit,  the  answers  to  which  the  teachers  must  be 
careful  to  take  from  them  alone.  By  this  kind  encourage- 
ment they  can  often  be  induced  to  make  at  least  some  portion 
of  the  calculation  required. 

Concrete  and  Abstract  Numbers. — Use  concrete 
and  abstract  numbers  alternately  in  the  lower  standards  till 
the  pupils  have  grasped  the  idea  that  "six"  standing  alone 
means  six  of  something.  They  attain  this  knowledge  far 
sooner  than  many  educationists  think  possible,  and  when  it  is 
accomplished  there  is  no  need  to  add  "nuts"  "books,"  etc. 
As  soon  as  children  know  the  value  of  the  different  coins 
— and  they  may  well  know  this  practically  before  they  are 
seven  years  old  if  taught  by  object  lessons — the  bulk  of  the 
questions  put  may  well  relate  to  money — the  best  form  of 
concrete  arithmetic,  because  the  most  practically  useful. 


ARITHMETIC,  iGq 


Allow  no  Artificial  Aids  in  Adding  Figures. — 

Never  let  children  count  on  their  fingers,  make  marks  on  their 
slates,  or  use  any  similar  device  to  assist  them  in  adding  up 
numbers.  If  once  permitted  to  trust  to  these  artificial  'sup- 
ports,  they  will  never  learn  to  tot  up  figures  with  certainty. 
If  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  addition  tables,  they  will  be  as 
sure  that  9  and  5  are  14,  as  that  twice  7  are  14.  If  they 
manifest  difficulty  in  adding  numbers  together  at  once,  with- 
out doubt  or  hesitation,  the  arithmetic  lesson  should  be 
interrupted  and  the  time  devoted  to  "Addition  drill."  It 
will  be  well  spent. 

Mental  Arithmetic  need  not  be  wholly  Oral  — 

If  difficulty  is  felt  by  the  class  in  working  the  examples, 
the  teacher  should  write  a  few  on  the  board  for  their  benefit. 
Also  she  should  occasionally  allow  them  the  help  of  slate  and 
pencil.  This  will  not  hold  them  back  in  acquiring  power  of 
rapid  calculation — quite  the  reverse. 


Tables. 

The  absolute  necessity  of  thorough  grounding  in  Tables 
has  been  so  frequently  insisted  upon  throughout  this  chapter, 
that  it  would  appear  as  though  little  remained  to  be  said  on 
the  subject.  Nevertheless,  let  it  be  once  more  observed 
that  the  scholar  who  has  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them 
possesses  an  immense  advantage.  Tables  should  never  be 
said  to  any  tune  or  with  a  peculiar  inflection,  but  repeated  in 
a  steady,  business-like  manner,  not  too  fast,  but  brightly,  as 
though  the  children  knew  they  said  them  well  and  delighted 
to  shew  it. 

What  Tables  are  to  be  Learned  ? — More  than  many 
persons  think  necessary,  if  the  children  are  to  be  rendered 
quick  and  ready  at  calculation.     Great  stress  is  now  laid  by 


lyO  ARITHMETIC. 


the  Department  upon  *Mong  tots" — a  difficult  exercise  for  a 
child,  and  one  that  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  almost 
daily  use  of  addition  drill.     Of  this  there  are  several  kinds. 

(a)  A  very  useful  one  is  to  advance  by  twos,  threes,  fours,, 
etc.,  not  always  starting  on  the  same  number,  e.g. — 2  and  2: 
are  4;  4  and  2  are  6;  6  and  2  are  8.  Or  3  and  2  are  5;  5  and 
2  are  7.  As  the  children  gain  experience,  larger  numbers- 
should  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  They  will  soon  learn 
that — if  5  and  4  are  9,  25  and  4  must  be  29. 

(b)  2  and  i  are  3  ;  2  and  2  are  4 ;  2  and  3  are  5,  etc. ;  3  and  r 
are  4 ;  3  and  2  are  5 ;  3  and  3  are  6,  and  so  on. 

(c)  2  and  3  are  5  ;  5  and  4  are  9  ;  9  and  5  are  14  ;  14  and  6- 
are  20. 

(d)  By  starting  on  any  given  number,  e.g.,  19,  and  adding 
another  given  number,  e.g.,  13  up  to  100.  19  and  13  are  32^ 
and  13  are  45,  and  13  are  58,  and  13  are  71,  and  13  are  84,  and 
13  are  97,  and  13  are  no.* 

Any  teacher  can  write  these  tables  on  paper  or  linen  for  the 
use  of  her  class.  This  saves  the  time  that  would  be  taken 
up  by  placing  them  on  the  blackboard. 

There  is  not  the  smallest  doubt  that  children  exercised 
day  by  day  in  this  manner  will  soon  be  distinguished  for 
the  ease  and  accuracy  with  which  they  execute  "Long 
Addition."  Subtraction  drill  can  be  worked  in  conjunction 
with  addition  when  the  children  are  sufficiently  advanced. 

Pence  Tables,  &e. — The  ordinary  farthings,  pence,  and 
shillings  tables  must  now  be  learnt ;  then  the  weights  and 
measures  required  by  the  Code.  Next  will  come  the  pence 
table,  combined  with  the  multiplication  table ;  e.g,  five  threes 
are  15 — fifteen  pence  are  one  and  three  pence;  five  fours  are 
20 — twenty  pence  are  one  and  eight  pence,  etc.,  etc.  This  is 
most  useful,  and  children  always  enjoy  saying  it. 

In  Standards  III.  and  IV.  the  multiplication  table  up  to  2a 


*  Addition  and  other  tables,  printed  in  very  large  type,  for  cfass  teaching,  can  be  had  at 
the  Depot  of  the  Education  Union,  20,  Harrow  Road,  London,  W. 


ARITHMETIC.  171 


times  should  be  learned,    and  the  money  table  up  to  2400 
pence,  progressing  by  fifties  and  hundreds  after  the  first  250. 


Problems. 

"Problems,"  say  many  of  H.M.  Inspectors,  "do  not 
receive  the  attention  they  deserve,  especially  in  girls'  schools- 
It  is  true  that  many  sums  set  for  children  of  twelve  or  thirteen, 
have  been  glaringly  unsuited  to  students  of  such  tender  years;, 
yet  the  inability  of  scholars  in  some  country  schools  to- 
grapple  with  a  problem  is  even  more  pronounced  in  Stan- 
dards III.  and  IV.,  where  the  questions  are  often  well 
chosen,  and  demand  only  the  exercise  of  a  little  thought  and 
calculation. 

That  there  must  be  some  defect  in  the  teaching,  few  will 
deny;  but  we  believe  that,  to  amend  this,  a  little  tact  far 
more  than  skill  is  needed  on  the  part  of  the  school  staff. 
They  err  through  lack  of  that  invaluable  power  of  putting 
one's  self  in  the  child's  place,  which  is  the  first  need  of  the 
educationist. 

Problems  must  be  Simplified, — It  will  be  found,  on> 
careful  scrutiny,  that  many  of  the  questions  so  greatly  dreaded 
by  the  children  are  very  simple  matters  after  all.  And,  if  they 
are  but  stripped  of  the  wordiness,  puzzling  terms,  and  big 
numbers  which  encumber  them,  the  scholar  would  at  once 
perceive  somewhat  of  their  drift. 

Problems  should  be  taught  Orally. — Mental  arith- 
metic must  lead  up  to  the  ordinary  book-problems  if  they  are 
to  be  understood.  Accordingly,  let  every  sum  of  the  sort  be 
worked  orally,  and  by  the  simplest  process,  before  the  child's, 
brain  is  bewildered  by  the  elaborate  questions  to  be  met 
with  in  guides  to  arithmetic  and  test-cards.  After  much 
patient  practice  of  this  kind,  it  will  be  found  that  children  of 


172  ARITHMETIC. 


average  ability  are  not  daunted  by  problems  which  are  suited 
to  their  age  and  capacity,  but  will  take  an  intelligent  pleasure 
in  thinking  them  out  and  solving  them.  It  is  not,  of  course, 
pretended  that  any  amount  of  the  most  skilful  preparation 
will  enable  a  child  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  what  is  actually 
beyond  his  powers  of  comprehension,  yet  even  then  we  may 
rest  assured  that  earnest  labour  is  never  thrown  away,  and 
the  teacher's  conscientious  effort  to  smooth  the  path  for  her 
pupils  will  bear  fruit  eventually. 

Examples  of  Simplified  Sums. — A  great  variety  of 
these  are  given  in  the  Guide  to  Mental  Arithmetic  published 
by  the  Education  Union.  We  append  here  enough  samples 
to  illustrate  our  meaning,  and  to  shew  that  teachers,  with  a 
little  practice,  may  easily  bring  even  intricate  processes  down 
to  the  level  of  the  children's  intellect. 

(i)  Typical  Sum. — If  350  yards  of  a  trench  are  dug  by  515 
men,  how  many  would  be  required  to  dig  560  yards  in  the 
same  time? 

Lead  up  to  this  by  asking  some  such  questions  as  the 
following : — 

If  it  took  six  boys  an  hour  to  cover  some  books,  how  many  boys  would  be 
wanted  to  cover  the  same  number  in  half-an-hour  ?  How  many  to 
cover  double  the  number  ? 

If  four  girls  made  eight  paper  mats  in  one  afternoon,  how  many  could  two 
girls  have  made  ?    One  girl  ?     Eight  girls  ? 

If  four  men  were  a  week  in  making  a  table,  how  long  would  two  men  have 
been  in  making  it  ? 

(2)  Typical  Sum. — A.  left  £i,Tjo,  of  which  one-third  was 
to  be  given  to  B.,  and  the  balance  in  equal  shares  to  C.  and 
D.     How  much  would  each  receive  ? 

This  could  be  shorn  of  all  mystery  for  a  young  child  if  he 
were  exercised  orally,  as  follows: — 

A  boy  divided  6d.  among  his  sister  and  two  brothers,  giving  his  sister 
one-third  and  dividing  the  balance  between  his  brothers.  How  much 
did  he  give  to  each? 


ARITHMETIC. 


A  father  had  24  walnuts  for  his  four  children.  He  gave  John  half,  ancfi 
divided  the  remainder  between  Eliza,  Harry,  and  Mary.  How 
many  each? 

(3)  T'ypical  sum: — What  sum  subtracted  from  9960  wiU 
leave  2505  ?  Here  it  is  the  big  numbers  which  make  the  child 
unable  to  arrive  at  the  meaning.     Ask  him — 

What  sum  subtracted  from  8  will  leave  2?  And  he  will  perceive  the 
process  at  once. 

(4)  Typical  sum : — How  many  times  will  a  wheel  of  7-ft. 
6-in.  circumference  turn  round  in  going  a  distance  of  fifty 
miles  ? 

If  the  teacher  will  take  the  trouble  to  procure  a  toy  cart  or 
bicycle,  chalk  a  wheel,  make  it  revolve  once  and  shew  the 
children  by  actual  measurement  that  the  space  it  traverses 
corresponds  with  its  circumference,  they  will  be  able  to  do  any 
number  of  similar  sums  with  ease  for  the  future. 

(5)  Typical  sum: — In  much  the  same  way,  sums,  such  as 
the  following — "A  post  is  buried  one-half  in  the  ground  and 
there  are  3-ft.  above  ground,  what  is  its  full  length?" — can  be 
made  quite  clear  with  a  foot-rule  half  buried  in  a  flower-pot. 

(6)  Typical  sum: — If  I  spend  £jgs  i^^*  4<^'  i^^  ^  year,  how 
much  is  that  a  day  ? — may  be  rendered : — 

If  I  pay  IS.  gd.  a  week  for  milk,  how  much  is  that  a  day  ?  ^ 

Again,  how  many  weary  hours  boys  and  girls  puzzle  over 
"interest  sums"  because  they  have  no  clear  idea  as  to  what 
the  term  "interest"  means;  while  "5  per  cent."  not  seldom 
remains  an  enigma  to  the  end  of  their  lives.  Yet  by  some 
such  questioning  as  that  given  below,  simple  interest  may  be 
made  plain  to  the  dullest : — 

A  man  who  wanted  to  borrow  £1,  went  to  a  friend  and  said — "  If  you: 
will  lend  me  £i  for  a  year,  I  will  return  it  at  the  end  of  that  time 
along  with  is.  for  the  loan  of  it."  What  would  that  shilling  be?' 
Interest. 

How  much  would  he  have  had  to  pay  at  the  same  rate  of  interest  for  ;i^20.. 
Answer  205. ;  for  £^0,  answer  S^s.^=£2  los. ;  for  ;^ioo,  answer  lOos. 
=£S-     (5  per  cent.) 


174  ARITHMETIC. 


Thus  the  children  will  have  been  led  easily  up  to  the  too- 
often  unmeaning  term  five  per  cent. — £5  for  a  hundred. 

The  same  simplifying  process  can  be  gone  through  with 
igreat  advantage  with  easy  problematic  questions  in  Stan- 
dards III.  and  IV. 

Catch  Division  Sums  require  to  be  led  up  to. 

— Such  questions  as  the  following  are  hardly  fair  for  children 
•of  nine  and  ten,  but  they  are  often  given.  What  sum  must 
be  multiplied  by  76  to  yield  £58  los.  6d.  ?  or,  what  sum  of 
money  can  be  subtracted  precisely  50  times  from  £706  105.  ? 

Here,  as  before,  the  only  way  to  make  children  understand 
such  sums  is  to  ask  similar  questions,  using  very  low  figures  ; 
e.g.— 

What  sum  must  be  multiplied  by  2  to  yield  12  ? 

How  many  times  can  3  be  subtracted  from  15,  21,  36?    And  by  what 
process  must  it  be  done  ? 

Common  sense  will  tell  us,  that  the  more  abstruse  a  problem 
as,  the  more  need  there  is  of  labouring  to  bring  it  within  the 
range  of  a  young  mind.  The  typical  examples  given  above 
are  comparatively  easy,  but  those  who  know  child-nature  will 
readily  understand  what  a  source  of  perplexity  they  may 
prove  to  little  scholars  of  ten  or  under. 

Sums  must  be  clearly  stated. — As  soon  as  the  teacher 
has  reason  to  believe  that  the  children  clearly  understand 
the  meaning  of  a  problem,  she  should  introduce  a  more 
•difficult  sum  of  the  same  character,  and  work  it  with  them  on 
the  blackboard.  If  the  mental  work  has  been  thoroughly 
-done,  the  children  will  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  the  answer 
to  problems  which  are  gradually  made  more  complex ;  but  this 
is  not  all  that  will  be  required.  A  considerable  amount  of 
training  will  be  needed  before  they  can  write  a  clear  state- 
ment of  a  problem.  Most  children — even  when  the  working 
is  correct — will  put  down  a  confused  mass  of  figures,  out  of 
which  the  answer  must  be  picked;  or,  they  will  write  down 


ARITHMETIC.  175 


little  more  than  the  answer,  giving  no  clue  to  the  method  of 
working.  If,  however,  they  are  trained  from  the  beginning 
to  shew  up  sums  properly  and  to  state  them  intelligently,  it 
•will  save  infinite  trouble  and  muddle  afterwards.  Scholars 
•should  be  trained  to  place  the  working  of  sums  in  the  margin 
— leaving  the  centre  of  the  paper  clear  for  the  accurate 
stating  of  the  process. 

We  will  conclude  these  hints  for  the  intelligent  treatment 
■of  problems,  by  urging  teachers  to  be  of  good  courage,  and 
not  be  too  ready  to  believe  that  this  class  of  sum  is  beyond 
the  capacity  of  the  children.  True,  they  may  not  accomplish 
the  sums  set  at  the  examination ;  but,  even  then,  the  school 
will  be  thought  better  of  than  if  the  problems  had  not  been 
attempted ;  for  H.M.  Inspectors  are  instructed  thus : — *'  It  will 
not  be  right  to  report  that  arithmetic  has  been  well  taught, 
unless  the  greater  part  of  the  scholars  who  are  examined 
■endeavour  to  work  the  problem  (i.e.,  not  necessarily  give 
a  correct  solution,  but  make  an  intelligent  attempt  at  its 
solution)." 

And  withal,  such  teachers  will  have  the  testimony  of  a  good 
conscience  that  they  have  done  their  best  to  cultivate  and 
enlarge  the  children's  powers  of  reflection,  and  have  taught 
them  the  reason  of  certain  rules,  instead  of  training  them  to 
obtain  answers  by  fiUing  in  a  sort  of  pattern  and  following  a 
mere  mechanical  routine. 


176 


CHAPTER  XI. 


X 


Object   Lessons. 

T  is  generally  allowed,  that  one  main  purpose  of  early- 
education  should  be  to  train  children  in  good  habits — 
moral,  mental  and  religious — by  directing  their  super- 
fluous activity  into  suitable  channels,  and  guiding  aright  their 
powers  of  attention  and  reflection.  This  training,  to  be 
truly  effective,  must  aim  beyond  the  mere  lesson  of  the 
moment.  The  intention  must  be,  not  so  much  to  fill  the 
mind  with  a  number  of  facts,  as  to  produce  habits  of  reason- 
ing and  observation — to  lead  the  learners  to  notice,  and  to 
draw  conclusions  for  themselves. 

It  is  impossible  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  the  culti- 
vation, in  early  youth,  of  the  observing  faculties.  Observa- 
tion is  only  another  name  for  patient,  well-directed  work,  and 
all  human  power  comes  through  its  exercise.  One  excellent 
mode  of  training  pupils  in  habits  of  thoughtful  attention  is 
to  be  found  in  a  wisely-arranged  series  of  object  lessons. 

Object  Teaching  not  to  be  restricted  to  very- 
Young  Children. — For  many  years,  all  teaching  of  the 
kind  was  confined  to  the  Infant  School,  and  the  elder  pupils 
were  entirely  deprived  of  the  solid  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
such  training.  This  was  a  grave  error,  and  one  which  our 
Educational  authorities  are  now  seeking  to  retrieve ;  for,  by 
recent  Codes,  object  lessons  are  sanctioned  for  several  stand- 
ards of  the  boys'  and  girls'  departments. 

This  Teaching  more  or  less  of  a  Failure. — As 

hitherto  taught,  object  lessons  have  proved  to  a  great  degree 


OBJECT    LESSONS.  I77 


•disappointing,  the  results  not  being  such  as  might  be  reason- 
ably looked  for.  To  this  failure,  many  causes  have  contri- 
buted, but  we  can  only  glance  at  a  few  of  them: — 

Absence    of   Consecutive    Arrangement. — First, 

there  has  been  too  little  order  and  sequence  in  the  subjects 
chosen.  Young  scholars  are  not  readily  interested  when 
instruction  is  of  a  fragmentary  character.  Yet,  how  often 
have  the  materials  for  such  lessons  been  chosen  at  random. 
For  instance,  children  have  been  taught  one  week  about  sugar, 
the  next  about  crocodiles,  and  on  a  third  occasion  about  silk. 
Very  rarely  were  they  told  beforehand  what  the  lesson  was  to 
"be  upon,  in  order  that  their  interest  and  curiosity  might 
be  a  little  excited  on  the  matter.  Indeed,  occasionally  it 
happened  that  the  teacher  omitted  to  tell  them,  at  the  time, 
the  subject  of  the  lesson,  and  perchance  this  was  half  over 
before  they  had  more  than  a  dim  perception  of  its  purport. 
Again,  when  object  lessons  bear  no  relation  to  each  other, 
there  is  the  superadded  evil,  that  recapitulation  of  former 
instruction  becomes  almost  impossible."^ 

Lessons  too  Infrequent.— One  lesson  each  week  has 
been  considered  by  many  teachers  an  ample  allowance,  whereas 
children  of  six  and  seven  years  of  age  would  profit  greatly  by 
daily  instruction  of  the  kind.  The  lessons  would  possibly  in 
this  case  be  shorter  and  less  elaborate,  but  this  might  be  a 
■decided  advantage. 

No  Objects  Exhibited.— It  is  a  fact,  though  very  diffi- 
cult of  belief,  that  hundreds  of  so-termed  object  lessons  have 
been  given  without  the  aid  of  pictures  or  other  objects.  The 
absurdity  of  this  is  self-evident ;  as  well  attempt  to  give  a 
lesson  on  the  piano  without  an  instrument ! 

As  its  name  implies,  the  chief  purpose  of  an  object  lesson  is 

*Interest  in  the  coming  lesson  may  be  stimulated  by  the  simple  plan  of  placing  the  specimen 
■or  picture  before  the  class  the  day  before.  Most  children  would  study  it  attentively  if  told— 
•'To-morrow  you  shall  have  a  lesson  upon  this." 

N 


IjS  OBJECT   LESSONS. 


to  lead  the  scholars  to  form  correct  ideas  of  things  that  are 
evident  to  the  senses.  Accordingly,  if  the  impression  made  is 
wanting  in  clearness  and  precision,  and  the  image  produced 
in  the  child's  mind  is  misty  and  confused,  the  first  aim  of  the 
instruction  has  been  missed.  Can  any  fruit,  then,  be  ex- 
pected from  a  lesson  in  which  nothing  substantial  is  offered  to 
the  notice  of  the  pupil,  and  the  teacher  trusts  only  to 
laboured  and  heavy  verbal  description. 

Specimens  and  pictures  should  be  liberally  provided.  In 
some  cases  it  is  possible  to  exhibit  a  genuine  sample  of  the 
object  under  consideration ;  this  the  children  should  be  al- 
lowed to  handle  and  examine,  and  have  long  enough  under 
their  notice  to  form  accurate  notions  as  to  its  nature. 
When  specimens  cannot  be  procured,  good  models  or  pictures 
must  be  furnished. 

The  value  of  good  pictures  can  hardly  be  placed  too  high. 

To  begin  with,  let  us  consider  that  thousands  of  children 
depend  entirely  upon  pictures  for  their  notions  about  many 
wonderful  things,  belonging  to  animal  and  plant  hfe,  which 
inspire  young  people  with  intense  interest.  How  could  a  child 
possibly  form  any  adequate  conception  of  a  camel,  a  palm  tree^ 
or  a  boa-constrictor,  unless  his  imagination  were  stimulated 
by  a  spirited  illustration  ? 

Even  when  a  natural  specimen  can  be  exhibited,  it  is  often 
nearly  worthless,  save  when  accompanied  by  a  pictorial  repre- 
sentation. For  example — a  cotton-pod,  or  piece  of  sugar-cane 
would  afford  but  a  sorry  idea  of  the  cultivation  of  these 
productions,  unless  supplemented  by  pictures  of  the  growing 
cotton  plant,  and  the  sugar  plantation.  An  ostrich  egg  or 
piece  of  sealskin  might,  indeed,  be  displayed,  but  these  would 
avail  Httle  apart  from  pictures  of  the  ostrich  and  seal  them- 
selves. 

The  Specimens  shewn  should  he  Appropriate. 

— It  is  not  possible  to  take  too  much  pains  to  procure  a 
varied  collection  of  specimens — provided  that  they  fall  within 


OBJECT    LESSONS.  1 79 


the  limits  of  propriety  and  common  sense.  Those  Hmits 
would,  however,  be  over-stepped,  should  teachers  follow  the 
advice  of  some  enthusiasts  who  advocate  introducing,  into  the 
schoolroom,  live-stock — such  as  poultry,  ducks  and  geese, 
guinea-pigs,  frogs,  rats,  etc.  Nor  can  the  dissection  of  dead 
animals  be  regarded  as  aught  but  a  coarse  and  unsuitable 
spectacle  for  school-children  ;  the  slight  additional  exactitude 
gained  by  such  an  exhibition  would  be  dearly  purchased  at  the 
expense  of  delicate  and  refined  feeling.''^ 

It  is  not  necessary  that  objects  used  for  illustration  should 
be  of  a  rare  and  costly  nature.  As  an  example,  we  may 
observe  that  there  is  no  better  or  more  interesting  way  of 
arousing  the  children's  interest  in  that  great  mystery  of  nature 
— plant  propagation — than  by  providing  a  box  of  earth  and 
sowing  grains  or  beans  therein  (at  intervals  of  two  or  three 
days),  and  afterwards  exhibiting  them  in  their  various  stages 
of  growth. 

The  Substance  of  the  Lesson  Neglected.— Herein 

lies  another  cause  of  failure.  Those  who  have  listened  while 
object  lessons  of  a  certain  class  have  been  given,  must  have 
noticed  that  the  main  portion  of  the  instruction  has  often 
been  omitted.  The  teacher  has  been  so  occupied  in  describing 
the  properties  of  the  qbject  in  question,  that  nothing  has  been 
said  respecting  the  thing  itself.  A  dozen  or  more  terms 
having  been  paraded  and  laboriously  instilled — consisting  of 
difficult  words  which  find  no  place  in  a  child's  vocabulary — 
the  instruction  has  ended,  leaving  the  class  as  ignorant 
as  they  were  at  the  beginning,  except  for  a  little  language- 
teaching  of  a  valueless  description. 

Of  what  interest  or  advantage  can  it  be  to  a  little  child  to 
learn  that  such  and  such  articles  are  ductile,  malleable,  fri- 
able, translucent,  absorbent,  combustible,  flexible,  tough,  solid 

*No  objection  could  be  made  to  the  borrowing  of  a  globe  of  gold  fish,  wherewith  to  illus- 
trate the  movements  of  the  gills  and  fins,  which  are  not  visible  in  a  model  or  picture.  A 
school  aquarium  also  supplies  much  interesting  and  instructive  matter  for  lessons  on  animal 
and  plant  life. 


l8o  OBJECT    LESSONS. 


or  opaque  ?  (The  last-named  is  a  favourite  adjective — being  a 
safe  term  to  apply  to  most  objects.)  Then,  will  not  a  little  re- 
flection surely  shew  teachers,  that,  if  an  object  lesson  is  not  a 
suitable  occasion  for  adding  to  the  children's  stock  of  adjec- 
tives, it  is  even  less  allowable  to  turn  it  into  a  spelling  lesson  ? 
On  the  contrary,  the  grand  aim  and  purpose  of  such  teaching 
ought  to  be  kept  distinctly  in  view,  and  all  instruction  that  is  more 
suited  to  a  reading-lesson,  sedulously  excluded.  Any  descrip- 
tion of  the  subject  under  consideration  should  be  elicited,  when 
possible,  from  the  children  themselves,  and  given  in  their  own 
langiiage.  To  put  unnatural  and  often  abstruse  expressions 
into  the  scholars'  mouths,  then  write  the  words  on  the  black- 
board and  have  them  repeated  and  spelt  over  and  over  again, 
is  a  deplorable  mis-use  of  the  hour  which  the  time-table  pro- 
claims is  given  up  to  "  Object  Teaching." 

The  Power  of  Observation  to  be  Trained. — The 

careful  directing  of  the  children's  attention  is  the  principal  end 
of  object  teaching,  and  this  is  doubtless  the  first  step  towards 
the  production  of  those  skilled  artizans  for  whom  there  is  so 
great  a  demand  at  the  present  time — men  who  can  introduce 
into  their  work  somewhat  of  original  thought  and  design.  Only 
through  early  and  systematic  training  of  the  senses,  will  our 
scholars  learn  to  be  on  the  look-out  for  what  is  new  and 
remarkable,  and  to  discern  what  would  remain  completely 
hidden  from  an  uneducated  eye. 

Our  best  educationists  have  persistently  pointed  out  that  to 
foster  the  power  of  observation  is  the  main  function  of  object 
teaching;  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  how  many  schoolmasters 
and  schoolmistresses  continue  to  lecture  and  harangue  their 
pupils — instead  of  teaching  them  ;  telling  them  facts  which 
they  might  and  should  discover  for  themselves,  and,  in  short, 
impeding  the  development  of  those  habits  of  discrimination 
which  are  of  so  much  more  value  than  the  actual  information 
conveyed ! 

Let  such  teachers  bear  in  mind  that  even  young  children 


OBJECT    LESSONS.  l8l 


are  capable  of  thoroughly  studying  objects  suited  to  their 
comprehension,  and  that  the  habit  they  acquire  at  school  of 
concentrating  their  mind  on  what  is  presented  to  their  notice, 
will  be  readily  extended  by-and-bye  to  other  things  which 
they  will  meet  with  in  their  daily  life,  and  thus  lead  on 
to  important  results  in  the  future. 

Trying  to  put  Old  Eyes  into  Young  Heads. — 

This  pernicious  mistake  has  to  answer  for  a  great  deal  of  the 
weariness  that  youthful  learners  experience  during  many 
lessons  upon  natural  objects,  which  might  otherwise  be 
rendered  delightful  to  them.  Teachers,  or  rather  the  authors 
of  the  books  from  which  they  collect  their  facts,  expect  the 
little  folks  to  see  objects  with  their  eyes,  though  the  latter, 
perhaps,  first  opened  to  the  light  forty  or  fifty  years  ago. 
In  many  excellent  and  charming  publications  written  for 
children  by  naturalists  and  others,  we  find  the  young  readers 
called  on  to  note  facts  which,  though,  no  doubt  full  of  sur- 
passing interest  for  men  of  science,  are  yet  utterly  devoid  of 
attraction  for  a  child  of  ten  or  eleven.  For  example,  in  a 
little  book  on  **  The  Human  Body,"  written  for  very  young 
children,  the  author  exclaims — "  I  hope,  dear  children,  that 
you  have  often  thought  and  wondered  about  the  reflex  action 
of  the  nerves  !  " 

It  will  be  a  happy  day  for  the  children  in  our  schools  when 
elderly  ladies  and  gentlemen  leave  off  seeking  to  adjust  their 
spectacles  to  the  bright  eyes  of  the  young,  and  try  to  recol- 
lect what  it  was  that  used  to  rouse  interest  in  their  own  minds, 
before  they  had  reached  their  teens. 

System  Essential. — In  the  treatment  of  an  object  lesson, 
system  and  order  are  essential.  The  method  adopted  will 
naturally  vary  with  the  subject,  and  the  age  of  the  scholars. 
For  very  young  children,  it  is  generally  sufficient  to  deal  with 
form,  colour,  parts,  and  practical  uses.  For  the  next  grade, 
the  different  stages  of  growth,  or  preparation,  may  be  added  ; 
■whilst  a  still  higher  course,  besides  the  foregoing  particulars, 


iS2  OBJECT    LESSONS. 


may  include  the  tracing  of  cause  and  effect,  and  also  historical 
particulars  and  statistics. 

There  must,  too,  be  system  in  the  way  the  scholars  are 
trained  to  notice.  We  will  suppose  that  the  lesson  is  upon 
some  wild  animal,  a  picture  of  which  is,  for  the  first  time, 
shewn  them.  If  left  to  themselves,  they  will  probably  dismiss 
the  matter  with  a  hasty  and  cursory  glance  ;  but  they  may 
easily  be  trained  to  study  its  most  striking  characteristics 
in  their  proper  order.  The  connection  of  one  part  with 
another  may  then  be  pointed  out,  and  afterwards  the  animal 
considered  as  a  whole. 

Let  it  be  again  and  again  impressed  on  those  to  whom  the 
giving  of  these  lessons  is  entrusted,  that  something  more  is 
desirable  than  simply  to  thrust  knowledge  upon  the  children. 
There  are  few  lessons  of  the  kind  in  which  they  may  not  have 
the  pleasure  and  profit  of  finding  out  something  for  them- 
selves ;  though  it  is  to  be  feared  that  many  teachers  are  apt 
to  forget  this. 

Proceed  from  the  Known  to  the  Unknown. — 

First  lessons  in  obiect  teaching  should  tend  to  fix  the  atten- 
tion upon  what  is  already  known  in  a  certain  degree  (con- 
tinually seen,  yet  perhaps  hardly  noticed),  and  to  shew— in 
these  common  and  possibly  despised  things — fresh  interests, 
and  properties  hitherto  unsuspected.  This,  when  done  in  an 
original  and  striking  way,  will  often  seem  like  a  revelation 
to  the  young  learners ;  and  if  the  links  that  connect  these 
common  things  with  others  that  are  unfamiliar,  can  be 
plainly  shewn,  the  way  is  being  prepared  for  the  whole  uni- 
verse to  become  one  great  lesson-book.  Of  all  modes  for 
quickening  the  intelligence  of  children  this  is  indisputably 
the  best,  although  there  are  others  which  must  on  no  account 
be  neglected. 

It  is  not  enough  to  tell  children  of  the  existence  of  some- 
thing unknown  to  them,  they  should  be  taught  in  what 
relation  it  stands  to  things  with  which  they  are  conversant. 


OBJECT    LESSONS.  183 


and  led  to  discriminate  between  them,  and  to  notice  at 
what  points  they  approach  to,  or  diverge  from,  each  other. 
The  comparing  of  two  things  plainly  implies  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  both  of  them.  This  is  important  to  keep  in 
mind. 

Teachers  of  the  present  day  are  apt  to  commit  themselves 
to  one  of  two  extremes.  Either  they  persistently  ignore  the 
truth,  so  ably  set  forth  by  Commenius  three  hundred  years 
ago,  that  any  knowledge  imparted  should  advance,  when 
practicable,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  ;  or,  in  their  zeal 
for  this  doctrine,  they  omit  altogether  to  bestow  fresh  infor- 
mation. Now,  taking  into  consideration  the  class  of  children 
.attending  our  schools,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  which  of  the  two  is 
the  more  grievous  error. 

Though  it  is  wise  and  right  to  begin  with  things  known, 
-we  injure  our  children  if  we  restrict  them  to  the  microscopic 
^examination  of— say,  a  cat,  a  dog,  or  a  sparrow,  and  leave 
them  in  profound  ignorance  of  the  great  carnivora,  the  shark, 
the  whale,  the  condor,  eagle,  stork,  and  the  numberless 
rstrange  and  interesting  creatures  that  inhabit  this  globe. 
AVhile  it  is  undeniable  that  "  Knowledge,  like  charity,  should 
^begin  at  home,"  it  is  a  gross  abuse  when  either  one  or  the 
<other  is  made  to  end  there. 

Again,  it  is  clear  that  there  are  numerous  subjects  which 
cannot  be  led  up  to.  What  are  teachers  to  do  here  ?  Is  the 
pupil  to  be  left  in  entire  ignorance  of  such  matters  ?  Not  so ; 
careful  instruction  respecting  them  must  be  given  after  the 
•*'  Declaratory  mode." 

To  make  a  discreet  choice  between  these  two  systems ;  to 
inow  how  to  stretch  the  one  to  its  fair  limits  and  deepen  im- 
pressions already  made,  and  then  fall  back  upon  the  other  so 
effectively  that  the  child  can  picture  to  himself  the  unknown 
fact  or  thing,  and  lay  hold  of  it  with  his  imagination  or  intelli- 
•gence,  is  no  slight  test  of  a  teacher's  capacity. 

Above  all,  let  Dulness  be  Avoided.— Lastly,  let  a 

few  words  be  said  on  the  over-formality  and  wordiness  which 


184  OBJECT    LESSONS. 


crush  the  very  life  out  of  so  much  otherwise  admirable 
instruction.  It  is  no  wonder  that  many  young  teachers  should 
shrink  from  giving  these  lessons,  if  they  consider  it  necessary 
to  encumber  themselves  with  headings,  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions, technical  expressions,  and  Latin  words,  till  their 
teaching  becomes  insufferably  dull,  heavy,  and  spiritless. 

The  subject-matter  of  object  teaching  is  so  interesting  that 
it  ought  naturally  to  secure  the  attention  of  the  learners^ 
When,  therefore,  teachers  find  that  interest  is  flagging,  they 
may  be  assured  the  fault  lies  with  themselves,  and  must  be 
prompt  to  change  the  form  in  which  they  are  presenting 
knowledge  to  the  class. 

What  our  scholars  want  are  lessons  which  are  at  once  more- 
simple  and  more  frequent,  arranged  in  consecutive  order,  yet 
covering  a  wider  area,  and  given  with  more  thought  about  the 
class,  and  less  about  the  teacher's  style  and  diction  and  the 
precise  framework  upon  which  the  lesson  is  constructed. 

By  all  means,  let  the  younger  teachers  be  trained  to  draw  up 
detailed  and  methodical  "notes"  ;  they  cannot  have  too  much 
practice  of  the  kind.  But,  when  engaged  in  actual  teachings 
they  should  try  to  forget  these  artificial  helps,  and  speak  in  as 
simple,  natural,  and  interesting  a  manner  as  they  can.  There 
would  be  less  show  about  such  teaching  than  about  a  few 
elaborately  got-up  lessons,  given  in  polished  and  pedantic 
language ;  but  it  would  be  solid,  and  adapted  to  child-nature^ 
and  consequently,  in  the  end,  satisfactory. 

Not  an  Easy  Branch  of  Education.— It  must  be 
owned  that  object  teaching  is  attended  with  peculiar  diffi- 
culties. Inexperienced  teachers  are  often  sorely  perplexed  by 
finding  themselves  stopped  at  every  point.  Speaking,  for 
instance,  of  the  composition  of  glass,  they  encounter  entire 
ignorance  of  the  nature  of  potash  ;  or,  referring  to  the  manner 
in  which  fishes,  breathe,  they  discover  that  their  pupils  know 
nothing  about  their  own  organs  of  respiration.  If  they  keep 
to  what  is  known,  they  seem  to  be  moving  in  a  weary  and 


OBJECT    LESSONS.  185 


confined  circle ;  if  they  launch  out  into  the  unknown,  it  soora 
becomes  apparent  that  they  are  out  of  the  children's  depth. 

The  truth  is,  that,  in  such  teaching,  foresight  and  a  definite; 
plan  of  action  are  peculiarly  requisite.  Desultoriness  must  be 
eschewed,  and  infinite  pains  taken  to  map  out  a  wisely-chosert 
set  of  lessons  which  shall  bear  some  real  relation  to  each  other^ 

The  scope  and  limit  of  every  lesson  should  be  arrangedl 
beforehand,  and  this  limit,  as  a  general  rule,  adhered  to — the- 
teacher  avoiding  the  temptation  to  make  digressions  by  wan- 
dering down  bye-paths  that  look  attractive  at  the  moment. 

We  have  suggested  no  scheme  of  object  teaching,  but  it  seems; 
the  most  rational  plan  to  be  guided  by  the  great  divisions  of 
Nature,  and  give  courses  of  fundamental  lessons  on  the  animal^, 
vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms ;  then,  upon  this  basis,  to* 
build  up  other  instruction  in  natural  history,  etc.  If  the- 
rudimentary  lessons  were  repeated  four  or  five  times  during; 
the  year's  course,  we  should  at  least  ensure  our  childrem 
knowing  something  about  the  classification,  structure,  and 
habits  of  animals  generally,  and  the  developments  of  plant 
life.  This  would  give  them  a  love  of  nature  and  a  healthj^ 
desire  to  know  more  of  her  mysteries,  and  fit  them  to  read 
more  advanced  works  on  the  subject,  later  on.  The  study 
of  nature — of  trees,  flowers,  animals,  and  the  forms  of  earthy 
has  always  been  found  to  stimulate  thought,  and  fill  the  mind 
with  ideas  that  are  pure,  beautiful,  and  true. 

For  elder  pupils,  object  teaching  may  be  so  framed  as  to. 
touch  upon  physics,  heat,  light,  motion,  &c. ;  but  it  cer- 
tainly would  appear  wiser  to  treat  these  subjects  in  separate 
lessons  when  this  is  feasible,  than  to  introduce  them  into 
those  described  above. 


1 85 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Science  Teaching. 

VJVHE  series  of  object  lessons  given  in  the  lower  standards 
xSi^  should  prepare  the  way  for,  and  lead  up  to  the  teaching 
of  elementary  science,  in  the  upper  divisions  of  the 
^school.  A  long  and  imposing  list  of  specific  subjects  now 
•appears  in  the  Code — from  which  a  selection  may  be  made. 
It  is  of  real  consequence  that  teachers  and  managers  should 
Tegard  these  "specifics"  with  a  favourable  eye,  and  allow 
the  children  under  their  care  to  benefit  by  them,  whenever 
possible. 

Advantages  of  Science  to  the  Student. — There  are 
few  children  that  remain  at  school  till  the  sixth  standard  is 
passed,  who  would  not  be  benefited  by  learning  the  principles 
of,  at  least,  one  science.  Such  study  trains  the  perceptive 
faculties,  cultivates  a  habit  of  keen  and  careful  observation, 
teaches  the  value  of  well-weighed  evidence,  and  exercises  the 
learner  in  patient  investigation  and  the  valuable  qualities 
'of  accuracy  of  thought  and  precision  of  statement.  Much 
might  be  said,  too,  of  the  pleasurable  and  legitimate  curiosity 
-excited  by  the  unfolding  of  many  secrets  of  nature  which 
•ought  to  possess  interest  for  every  denizen  of  this  earth. 

Nor  must  the  interest  and  brightness  which  science-teaching 
brings  into  the  schoolroom  be  forgotten.  How  mistaken  was 
the  old  idea  that  because  the  school-life  of  children  of  the 
working-class  was  brief,  it  could  be  turned  to  the  best  account 
hy  restricting  them  to  the  study  of  the  Three  R.'s — thus 
ensuring  solid,  thorough  teaching !  There  was  something 
plausible  about  this  style  of  reasoning  ;  and,  to  those  ignorant 
of  child-nature,  the  plea  for  thoroughness  was  unanswerable. 


SCIENCE    TEACHING.  187 


"Yet  the  argument  was  fallacious  in  more  ways  than  we  have 
time  to  notice  here.  For  one  thing,  it  is  not  possible  for 
•scholars  under  fourteen  to  master  even  reading,  writing,  and 
.arithmetic  perfectly  ;  and,  secondly,  a  child  advances  far  more 
-quickly  and  surely  in  the  direction  of  thoroughness,  when  his 
■education  is  more  varied  and  interesting.  The  attempt  to 
-keep  him  within  a  narrow  circle  of  study  has  disastrous  con- 
sequences ;  it  can  but  lead  to  weariness  and  senseless  rote- 
Avork,  and  at  last  induce  positive  hatred  of  learning. 

To  what  deadly,  dreary  monotony  have  not  poor  children 
in  the  past  been  condemned,  in  thousands  of  the  State  schools, 
^nder  pretext  of  giving  them  "  simple,  suitable,  and  solid  '* 
leaching.  The  same  copybooks  written  and  re- written  ;  the 
.same  Readers  read  morning  and  afternoon  till  they  could  be  re- 
peated by  heart ;  the  same  dull,  incomprehensible  sums  (those 
prescribed  for  that  particular  standard  only).  This  exhilarating 
instruction,  forced  upon  the  poor  little  scholars,  year  out  and 
year  in,  was  certainly  eminently  calculated  to  foster  a  love  of 
learning  for  its  own  sake  ! 

Things  are  better  now.  But  there  are  still  whole  districts 
where  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  schools  take  a 
^Specific  ;  and  there  is  always  danger  lest  the  teacher  forget 
.that  monotony  is  one  of  the  worst  foes  to  real  education,  and 
ilhat  pupils  may  suffer  cruelly  unless  every  legitimate  means 
'of  introducing  variety  and  movement  is  made  the  most  of.  It 
is  likewise  perfectly  true  that  the  intricacies  presented  by  one 
subject  can  often  be  only  overcome  by  the  study  of  some 
"Other.  The  worst  possible  way  of  trying  to  make  a  pupil 
surmount  his  difficulties  and  dislikes,  is  to  keep  him  standing 
still  and  looking  at  them. 

Not  less  Important  from  a  Practical  Point  of 
"View. — Science  is  not  merely  valuable  as  a  means  of  pro- 
moting intellectual  growth  ;  it  is  also  of  immense  practical 
■value.  Not  only  do  chemistry,  physiology,  botany,  etc.,  form 
an  indispensable  introduction  to  many  trades  and  professions; 


l88  SCIENCE    TEACHING. 


but  there  are  few  persons  to  whom  an  acquaintance  with 
one  or  more  of  these  subjects  would  not  prove  of  service  as- 
they  journey  through  life. 

Further,  the  importance  of  science  in  its  relation  to  the- 
industries,  manufactures,  and  commerce  of  this  country  must 
be  realised.  Our  readers  need  hardly  be  reminded  that  a  very- 
keen  competition  is  now  going  on  between  England  and  other 
nations  with  respect  to  various  manufactures  and  products  of 
skilled  labour,  and  that  we  are  often  worsted  in  the  contest- 
Germany,  France,  Belgium  and  America  give  more  promi* 
nence  than  we  do  to  technical  education  as  a  sequel  to  that 
of  the  elementary  school,  and  a  preliminary  to  the  settled; 
occupations  of  after-Hfe. 

In  Germany,  for  example,  the  perfection  of  nearly  every 
trade  and  handicraft  is  promoted  by  schools  and  guilds,, 
fostered  more  or  less  by  '*  the  powers  that  be " ;  and  it 
generally  transpires  that  those  found  taking  the  lead  irt 
factories,  are  not  only  "  men  of  business,"  but  also  "  men  of 
science" — in  their  own  special  departments.  They  well 
understand  the  nature  both  of  the  material  they  use,  and  of 
the  required  machinery;  consequently,  excellent  work  is 
turned  out  at  a  cheaper  rate,  and  the  English  producer  is  often 
undersold.  This  occurs  not  only  in  manufactured  goods  of 
various  kinds,  but  also  with  regard  to  agriculture,  dairy- 
produce,  and  fruit-growing. 

As  one  example,  we  may  observe  that,  though  Denmark  is. 
a  country  no  bigger  than  the  province  of  Munster,  it  yet 
has  started  i,6oo  creameries,  encouraged  by  the  Government,, 
and  conducted  on  approved  principles.  It  is  only  quite 
recently  that  the  British  public  have  begun  to  realise  the 
necessity  of  taking  similar  steps  to  prevent  the  ruin  of  several! 
departments  of  industry. 

In  the  light  of  facts  such  as  these,  enlightened  educationists 
will  see  that  it  is  their  duty  and  interest  to  promote,  directly 
and  indirectly,  such  scientific  and  technical  instruction  as 
the    pupils    of   our    primary    schools    are    capable  of   bene- 


SCIENCE    TEACHING.  189 


-filing  by.  So  acting,  they  will  further  not  only  education, 
hut  also  commercial  and  national  prosperity.  It  is  asserted 
that  there  is  serious  danger  of  England  losing  the  proud  place 
she  has  hitherto  held  among  the  nations  of  the  world,  unless 
men  can  come  forward  possessed  of  experience  and  inventive 
■talent ;  and,  since  it  is  the  sapling,  and  not  the  full-grown 
tree,  which  is  capable  of  being  bent  in  the  right  direction,  it 
is  obvious  that  a  bias  in  favour  of  scientific  research  ought 
to  be  given  in  the  Elementary  School. 

The  Instruction  must  be  Adapted  to  Children. — 

The  remarks  already  made  on  the  treatment  of  object  lessons, 
are  generally  applicable  to  science  teaching.  The  latter  may, 
indeed,  be  said  to  consist  of  lessons  on  objects  intimately  related 
J;o  each  other,  with  classification  and  nomenclature  superadded 
— as  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  capacities  of  children. 

It  is  said  that  the  science  teaching  in  German  Primary 
Schools  is  of  a  very  simple  and  easy  character,  and  forms 
the  basis  of  that  which  a  boy  will  have  in  a  Secondary 
School — should  his  parents  desire  him  to  pursue  his  studies 
there.  For  this  reason,  the  elementary  teacher  aims  rather 
at  developing  a  general  taste  for  science  than  at  giving 
detailed  information. 

It  is  indeed  obvious  that  advanced  science,  which  will  pro- 
mote technical  training  and  ensure  a  supply  of  more  intelligent 
and  skilful  workmen  for  the  future,  can  hardly  find  a  place 
in  the  time-tables  of  our  State  Schools.  Yet  it  may  safely 
be  asserted,  that  those  children  who  have  gained  some 
insight  into  scientific  knowledge,  will  display  a  much  greater 
aptitude  for  learning  an  art  or  trade,  than  others  whose  educa- 
tion has  been  neglected  in  this  respect.  Employers  of  labour 
have  asserted  that  youths,  who  have  enjoyed  these  advan- 
tages, learn  in  six  weeks  what  others  take  six  months  to 
acquire. 

Illustrations  Indispensable; — If,  for  the  successful 
.giving  of  object  lessons,  pictures  and  specimens  are  necessary, 


igO  SCIENCE    TEACHING. 


much  more  are  they  required  for  the  teaching  of  most  depart- 
ments of  science.  Well-planned  experiments  by  the  instructor 
— and  also  by  pupils  of  suitable  age — are  likewise  needed  for 
lessons  in  chemistry.  However  useful  text-books  may  be,  yet; 
ocular  proofs  and  demonstration  are  absolutely  essentiaL 
Then,  to  insure  the  success  of  these  experiments,  teachers, 
must  prepare  them  with  care,  lest  they  perform  them  clumsily 
or  fail  in  them  altogether. 

It  is  not  required  that  the  apparatus  used  should  be  expen- 
sive and  complicated.  The  simplest  will  usually  prove  to  be 
the  best,  and  that  which  is  home-made  is  sometimes  superior 
to  any  other. 

The  Subjects  Chosen. — As  to  which  science-subjects 
are  to  be  taught  in  a  particular  school,  no  invariable  rule  can 
be  laid  down.  Often  the  preference  will  rightly  be  given  to^ 
those  which  have  some  bearing  on  the  trade,  manufactures,  or 
pursuits  of  the  neighbourhood,  or  which  seem  most  needed 
for  practical  purposes.  Agriculture,  for  lads  belonging  tO' 
country  districts  ;  and  chemistry,  for  those  brought  up  in  our 
great  industrial  centres,  are  among  the  most  appropriate. 

Drawing. — It  is  certain  that  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the- 
pencil  is  best  gained  in  early  youth,  and  it  is  not  possible  ta- 
overrate  the  importance  of  drawing  to  the  industrial  popu- 
lation of  any  civilized  nation.  With  this  remark  we  shall 
dismiss  the  subject  of  instruction  in  the  Art  of  Design  ;  for,  as- 
this  is  now  happily  made  compulsory  in  boys'  schools,  its 
advance  is  assured. 

Superficial  Teaching. — The  absurd  and  startling 
answers  often  made  at  examinations  in  chemistry,  physiology, 
etc.,  prove  the  worthlessness  of  much  of  the  instruction  now 
received.  Yet  it  does  not  follow  that  such  instruction  is  intrin- 
sically bad.  It  is  frequently  very  ably  given,  and  illustrated 
by  means  of  expensive  and  elaborate  apparatus.  What>, 
then,  is  amiss  ? 


SCIENCE    TEACHING.  IQI 


Two  things,  chiefly.  First,  the  teaching  is  wrapped  up  ir^ 
language  which  the  children  cannot  understand.  The  lecturer 
discourses  eloquently  upon  processes  and  operations,  elements, 
and  bases,  orders  and  classes,  and  tJie  pupils  look  on  in  blank; 
amazement,  and  wonder  what  it  is  all  about. 

Many  teachers  of  twenty  or  thirty  years'  standing  have 
not  yet  reahsed  that  words  which  represent  familiar  ideas. 
to  their  minds  have  no  meaning  whatever  for  their  pupils.. 
Often,  when  they  fondly  imagine  that  they  have  begun  at  the 
very  beginning,  they  are  using  terms  which  are  mere  empty- 
sounds  to  their  hearers.  This  is,  at  times,  caused  by  a  little, 
vanity — teachers  straining  to  express  themselves  in  what  they 
consider  correct  and  well-chosen  language.  A  laudable, 
ambition,  no  doubt,  but  let  them  remember  that  no  lan- 
guage can  be  accounted  well-chosen,  which  is  not  suited  tO' 
the  comprehension  of  the  listeners.  It  would  really  seem  as 
though  certain  people  go  out  of  their  way  to  find  some 
hard  term  of  Latin  derivation,  w^hile  a  good  Anglo-Saxon 
word  is  lying  close  at  hand,  which  would  be  not  only  more 
intelligible,  but  far  more  appropriate  to  the  subject ;  and — 
let  it  be  added — in  better  taste. 

Secondly,  the  very  ideas  sought  to  be  conveyed  are  beyond 
the  comprehension  of  children  who  have  gone  through  no 
previous  preparation.  This  fault  is  by  no  means  peculiar  to 
science  teaching.  We  have  remarked  upon  it  already  in 
connection  with  other  branches  of  knowledge,  but  feel  that  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  say  too  much  on  a  matter  which  is  one 
great  obstacle  to  any  real  progress  in  education.  In  all 
directions,  theorists  are  to  be  found  trying  to  thrust  the 
ideas  of  their  own  mature  minds  upon  minds  which  are 
passing  through  successive  stages  of  growth.  They  totally 
ignore  the  fact  that  general  formulas,  which  are  simple  enough 
to  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  whole  group  of  truths 
these  formulas  gather  up  and  represent,  are  a  complete 
mystery  to  children  who  are  still  in  ignorance  of  those  truths. 
^ It  has  been  aptly  said :  "The  ceaseless  observation,  inquiry,. 


192  SCIENCE    TEACHING. 


:and  inference  going  on  in  a  child's  mind,  and  its  acute  remarks 
fupon  matters  within  the  range  of  its  faculties,  prove  that  if 
*hese  powers  were  brought  to  bear  systematically  upon  studies 
-within  its  range,  they  would  be  mastered  without  help.  But 
-we  drag  it  away  from  facts  in  which  it  is  interested,  and 
:substitute  others  far  too  complex  for  it  to  understand,  and 
which  are,  therefore,  distasteful.  By  thus  denying  the 
^knowledge  the  child  craves,  and  cramming  it  with  what  it 
•cannot  digest,  we  succeed  in  producing  a  thorough  disgust 
for  knowledge  in  general." 

Simple  Primers  Needed. — The  finished  instruction 
now  given  by  experts,  in  many  of  the  larger  elementary 
schools,  requires  to  be  prepared  for  by  very  plain  teaching, 
rsuch  as  children  can  both  take  in  and  assimilate.  For 
this  purpose,  Science  Primers,  written  on  purpose  to  give  the 
■scholars  of  the  lower  standards  some  insight  into  easy  facts 
•concerning  physiography,  chemistry,  and  botany,  are  urgently 
meeded.  Probably  the  demand  will,  ere  long,  create  a  supply 
'Of  such  books ;  and,  when  this  is  so,  we  venture  to  express  a 
liope  that  they  will  be  taken  in  hand  by  teachers,  not  experts. 
By  all  means,  let  specialists  revise  and  correct,  but  it  is 
teachers  only  who  understand  the  "Art  of  putting  things"  to 
•children. 

It  is  also  much  to  be  desired  that  the  authors  of  these 
•manuals  of  the  future,  will  have  the  sense  to  steer  clear  of  the 
•quicksand  of  simile  which  has  proved  the  grave  of  much  instruc- 
tion that  might  otherwise  have  borne  good  fruit.  A  simile 
which  is  more  hard  of  comprehension  than  the  thing  it  prof  esses 
io  explain,  is  an  anomaly ;  but  books  for  children  are  full  of 
■such  anomalies.  Let  our  readers  investigate  science  primers 
for  themselves,  and  judge  whether  or  not  our  assertion  is  to 
the  point.  We  have  seen  the  idea  of  the  corpuscles  of  the 
blood  *'  simplified  "  for  children  by  comparing  them  at  one 
rtime  to  **  a  shoal  of  fish,"  at  another  to  **  a  fieet  of  boats," 
.and  at  a  third  to  a  '*  train  of  loaded  wagons  "  ;  the  diaphragm 


SCIENCE    TEACHING.  193 


termed  "A  faithful  guardian  that  watches  over  us  to  our  last 
sigh,"  and  a  gland  compared — in  the  same  book — to  a  bag  of 
silk  and  a  factory.  The  manual  was,  in  other  respects, 
admirably  drawn  up,  but  its  usefulness  was  marred  by  the 
author's  far-fetched  attempts  at  comparison.  Most  of  the 
object  lesson  books  for  elementary  schools  err  in  this  respect. 
Their  writers  can  have  little  conception  of  the  confusion  and 
perplexity  into  which  they  throw  the  childish  mind  by  these 
singular  '*  explanations."  Yet  what  else  can  be  the  result  of 
telling  a  class  that  an  insect's  body  is  like  a  railway-train, 
that  "dough"  (a  substance  with  which  every  child  is  per- 
fectly familiar)  resembles  "  clay,"  and  so  forth  ? 

Valueless  Science  Teaching. — We  will  end  these 
brief  remarks  on  the  importance  of  entertaining  practical 
views  on  this  important  branch  of  education,  by  a  few  words  of 
warning  respecting  a  sort  of  science-learning  which  obtains 
in  certain  quarters,  but  which  is  mere  waste  of  time  and 
energy.  It  consists  in  committing  to  memory  strings  of  tech- 
nical terms  and  rules,  learning  the  Latin  for  what  is  much 
better  said  in  English,  and  repeating  classified  names  which 
to  a  child  are  mere  jargon.  We  have  before  noticed  the 
almost  preternatural  power  possessed  by  young  people  of 
committing  to  memory  what  makes  no  sort  of  impression  on 
the  mind.  Far  better  to  let  ''specific  subjects"  alone,  than  to 
degrade  them  by  such  teaching  as  this;  it  will  but  create 
aversion  in  the  very  minds  which  it  is  desirable  shoul^ 
receive  a  bent  in  the  direction  of  true  science. 


194 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


Class    Talks. 

IF  there  is  one  point  more  than  another  in  which  the 
elementary  schools  of  this  country  are  found  wanting,  it 
is  in  imparting  anything  approaching  general  knowledge 
to  the  children  who  depend  on  them  for  all  the  refining  or  ele- 
vating influences  they  are  likely  to  enjoy.  In  certain  respects 
our  Educational  System  is  admirable,  but  it  would  be  untrue 
to  assert  that  the  pupils  who,  year  by  year,  leave  our  school- 
rooms to  take  their  place  in  the  battle  of  hfe,  are  well-informed 
for  children  of  their  age. 

No  thoughtful  person  can  study  the  code  of  laws  which 
controls  the  education  provided  for  the  working-classes,  with- 
out arriving  at  the  conclusion  that  the  children  are  con- 
demned to  learn  too  much  of  a  few  things,  and  little  or 
nothing  of  many  others  which  are  of  equal  importance.  It 
would  really  seem  as  though  the  maxim  underlying  our  educa- 
tional policy  in  the  past  was  "  All  or  nothing."  In  every 
subject  that  lies  outside  the  domain  of  the  three  R.'s,  our 
boys  and  girls  must  either  be  able  to  pass  a  searching  and 
exhaustive  examination,  or  they  shall  be  precluded  from  know- 
ing anything  whatever  about  it : 

A  child  of  twelve  shall  either  study  physiology  like  a 
medical  student,  or  be  unable  to  distinguish  between  the 
lungs  and  the  heart,  the  muscles  and  the  joints : 

He  shall  so  learn  botany  as  to  be  able  to  classify  plants 
according  to  the  scientific  nomenclature  of  a  professed  botanist, 
or  remain  (unless  he  be  country-bred)  so  densely  ignorant  of 
vegetable  life,  that  he  calls  poppies  and  peonies  roses,  knows 


CLASS    TALKS. 


95 


not  an  oak  from  a  poplar,  and  confounds  the  bark  of  a  tree 
with  its  root — if,  indeed,  he  knows  of  the  existence  of  a  root 
at  all : 

Unless  chemistry  is  taught  as  a  specific — with  the  accom- 
paniment of  a  costly  and  cumbrous  apparatus,  the  pupils  must 
leave  school  completely  devoid  of  the  simplest  knowledge 
respecting  the  composition  of  air  and  water,  or  the  hidden 
forces  of  nature — yes,  unable  even  to  attach  any  meaning  to 
isuch  terms  as  a  "  solid,  liquid,  gas." 

If  agriculture  is  the  "  science  taken,"  well  and  good !  If  not, 
€ven  the  brightest  town-scholar  knows  no  more  of  farming 
operations,  crops  and  cattle,  than  if  he  had  been  brought  up 
in  a  coal  mine,  or,  like  Caspar  Hauser,  at  the  bottom  of  a  well. 

Nay,  further,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  there  are 
hundreds  of  town-born  children  who  are  so  uninformed 
regarding  the  world  they  live  in,  that  their  most  vivid  con- 
ception of  a  sea  or  a  lake  is  derived  from  the  street  puddle,  and 
of  a  river  from  the  foul  gutter.  Of  such  natural  objects  as 
mountains  and  hills,  woods  and  forests,  they  have  not  the 
faintest  idea ;  and  the  words  which  they  meet  with  in  their 
reading-books  descriptive  of  these  objects,  are  but  so  many 
•empty  sounds. 

In  some  extreme  cases,  there  is  no  familiarity  even  with 
fields  and  hedgerows.  It  will  be  urged  that  such  gross  dark- 
ness as  this  is  not  common.  No,  happily  it  is  far  from  being 
the  normal  condition  of  children  even  of  the  poorest  parentage ; 
but — in  degrees  which  vary  according  to  circumstances — it  is 
a  sorrowful  fact  that  the  offspring  of  our  labouring  population 
grow  up  in  a  state  of  narrow-minded  unintelligence  which  is 
truly  deplorable. 

We  admit  that  each  standard  is  well  supplied  with  Readers 
which,  in  their  general  style,  leave  little  to  be  desired,  but  the 
information  they  convey  is  of  so  fragmentary  a  character,  and 
they  are  studied  so  much  more  with  a  view  to  acquiring  correct 
orthography  and  pronunciation  than  general  knowledge,  that 
they  count  for  little  as  aids  to  real  education. 


I 96  CLASS    TALKS. 


Main  Defect  of  Elementary  Teaching.— To  put 

the  matter  briefly— the  principal  fault  of  the  education 
provided  for  the  masses  of  this  country  is  its  narrowness. 
Exaggerated  attention  is  paid  to  a  few  favoured  subjects,  and 
often  minute  investigation  is  encouraged  of  certain  objects^. 
to  the  almost  total  exclusion  of  all  others. 

What  is  wanted  is  not  so  much  learned  instruction  con- 
cerning a  few  topics,  as  a  general  cultivation  of  the  child's- 
intelligence,  as  a  whole.  One  meaning  of  the  term  Education 
is  to  rear  or  edify,  and  there  is  a  striking  analogy  between 
the  erection  of  a  material  edifice  and  the  building-up  of 
mind  and  character  by  enlightened  instruction.  But  what 
would  be  thought  of  an  architect  who  should  fix  upon  one 
corner  of  the  house  he  was  constructing,  and  insist  upon 
its  being  completed  in  every  detail,  before  even  the  founda- 
tions of  the  other  parts  were  laid  ? 

The  farmer  or  gardener  does  not  devote  his  efforts  exclu- 
sively to  three  or  four  spots,  but  endeavours  first  to  get  the 
whole  land  under  cultivation,  and  then  to  bring  all  gradually  to 
perfection. 

Without  being  advocates  of  what  is  termed  a  *'  smattering,"" 
we  cannot  but  feel  it  a  reproach  to  the  primary  schools  of  this 
great  nation,  that,  boys  and  girls  who  have  passed  seven 
or  eight  years  within  their  walls,  should  go  forth  knowing 
little  or  nothing  of  the  history  of  the  world — past  and  present 
— the  progress  of  civilization  and  the  discoveries  and  inven- 
tions due  to  it,  the  habits  and  customs  of  foreign  nations,  the 
beautiful  in  nature  or  art,  and  the  thousand-and-one  other 
matters  which  ought  to  possess  interest  for  an  Enghshman. 

American  Education  superior  in  this  respect. 

— There  may  be  many  grave  defects  in  the  education  pro- 
vided gratis  for  young  Americans;  but  it  has  at  least  this 
solid  advantage  over  our  own,  that  it  gives  the  pupils  a  far 
better  all-round  knowledge  of  facts.  It  widens  the  range  of 
their  mental  vision,  and  prepares  the  men  of  the  future  to> 


CLASS    TALKS.  I97 


take  interest  in  something  higher  than  the  chronicles  of 
murder  and  divorce  cases  in  their  Sunday  paper,  and  the 
results  of  the  latest  prize-fight. 

Not  long  since  there  appeared,  in  a  United  States  journal, 
;a  humorous  account  of  a  Board-school  into  which  an 
American  had  "strayed  while  on  a  visit  to  England."  Hav- 
ing obtained  leave  to  address  a  few  questions  to  the  boys,  he 
very  naturally  tried  to  ascertain  their  opinion  of  his  own 
country.  One  query  after  another  was  put,  to  be  met  only 
.by  silence  and  blank  looks.  The  lads  were  aware  of  the 
-existence  of  America  and  could  name  its  principal  exports  to 
England,  but  that  was  all.  The  master  observed  stiffly  that 
.geography  was  not  "taken"  in  that  school,  and  his  visitor 
departed  considerably  mystified,  and  by  no  means  favourably 
impressed  with  the  "English  system." 

As  a  contrast  to  this,  we  may  relate  that  our  own  country- 
men, when  travelhng  in  America,  have  been  astonished  to 
find  that  even  the  surnames  of  our  English  bishops  were  well 
Iknown  to  the  educated  American ! 

Surely  there  is  a  happy  mean  which  might  be  struck  be- 
tween endeavouring  to  teach  the  children  everything  about 
something,  and  the  equally  erroneous  aim  of  teaching  them 
something  about  everything.  Thoroughness  and  depth  are 
greatly  to  be  honoured,  but  there  is  such  a  thing  as  pushing  a 
child  into  water  so  deep  as  to  drown  him. 

The  School  must  widen  its  Instruction. — Where 

•can  our  rising  generation  obtain  the  extended  training  they 
.need?  In  many  instances  the  parents  are  too  poor  and  hard- 
worked  to  do  more  than  provide  food  and  raiment  for  their 
offspring.  There  is  no  home  library  from  which  to  borrow 
books,  nor  is  the  conversation  at  the  hurriedly-snatched  meals 
likely  to  be  of  an  instructive  character.  It  is  clear,  then,  that 
ihe  school  ought  to  provide  the  child  with  that  equipment  of 
varied  information,  without  which  he  will  find  himself  at 
a  serious  disadvantage  when  grown  to  man's  estate. 


igS  CLASS    TALKS. 


Here  we  must  pause  "to  admit  thankfully  that  some  effectual 
efforts  have,  of  late  years,  been  made  by  the  Department  in 
this  direction.  There  has  been  an  extension  of  the  object- 
lesson  system,  and  greater  freedom  of  choice  in  specific  sub- 
jects. But,  grateful  as  all  true  educationists  must  be  for  this 
advance,  it  is  not  very  far-reaching.  Consequently,  unless 
teachers  can  be  roused  to  take  up  the  matter  zealously,  much 
progress  cannot  be  looked  for,  and  inspectors  will  continue 
to  be  shocked  at  the  scholars'  profound  ignorance  of  every- 
thing outside  the  sphere  of  the  ordinary  curriculum. 

Conversational  Teaching. ^Among  the  means  for  de- 
veloping the  intelligence  of  the  children  of  our  primary  schools, 
we  rank  very  highly  informal  Conversational  Lessons. 

This  chapter  is  headed  "Class  Talks,"  because,  by  these 
lessons,  we  desire  to  convey  rather  the  idea  of  a  parent  con- 
versing familarly  with  his  children  than  of  formal  instruction. 
Not  that  these  "  chats  "  are  intended  to  be  conducted  after  a 
desultory,  hap-hazard  fashion.  To  be  efficacious,  they  must, 
be  arranged  upon  a  system,  and  each  one  as  carefully  planned 
and  thought-out  beforehand  as  any  other  lesson. 

The  subject-matter  must  be  wisely  chosen,  the  arrangement 
of  parts  must  be  consecutive  and  natural,  the  method  adapted 
to  the  age  and  previous  acquirements  of  the  children,  and 
the  latter  trained  to  draw  their  own  conclusions  and  deduc- 
tions. With  advanced  classes,  besides  encouraging  conver- 
sational remarks,  it  may  be  wise  to  allow  them  to  take  a  few 
notes  at  the  timCj  and  afterwards  to  write  an  abstract  of  all 
that  has  been  brought  to  their  notice. 

Subjects  for  Class  Talks. — These  must  be  adapted  to 
the  age  and  circumstances  of  the  pupils.  They  are  to  be  found 
in  such  boundless  variety,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  make  a  selec- 
tion which  will  prove  generally  useful. 

Teachers  should  try  to  form  an  ideal  of  what  an  intelligent, 
well-informed  child  might  be  acquainted  with   to  his  own. 


CLASS    TALKS.  IQQ 


profit  and  pleasure,  and  then  try  to  bring  the  scholars  under 
their  care  as  near  to  that  ideal  as  possible;  and  this  no 
matter  how  poor  or  ignorant  they  may  appear.  Nay,  the 
more  sordid  and  unpromising  are  a  child's  surroundings,  the 
more  untiringly  will  a  high-principled  teacher  labour  to  bring 
every  gracious  and  ennobling  influence  to  bear  upon  his  life. 
Even  the  most  indigent  may  possess  exceptional  talents,  and 
surely  the  wise  and  good  of  all  lands  are  agreed,  that  natural 
gifts  should  be  cultivated  to  the  utmost,  and  their  possessors 
helped  to  rise  to  a  position  in  which  these  gifts  will  have  full 
scope. 

The  basis  of  a  conversational  lesson  will  frequently  consist 
of  a  group  of  such  objects  as  may  be  readily  associated  for  the 
purpose.  When  possible,  illustrations  must,  of  course,  be 
provided,  but  at  times  a  single  picture  will  suffice  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  there  are  many  topics  that  will  not  admit  of  any  such 
illustration. 

The  following  subjects  will  be  found  to  possess  general 
interest  for  young  people  : — 

(1)  Human  habitations — 

(a)  01  civilized  nations — from  the  shanty  or  log-hut  to  the  castle  and 

palace. 
[d)  Of  savage    tribes — the   Arab's    tent,    the    Indian's   wigwam,    a 

Caffre-kraal,  etc. 

(2)  Modes  of  travelling  at  home  and  abroad. 

(3)  Modes  of  travelling— ancient  and  modern. 

(4)  Bird  architecture. 

(5)  Insect  architecture. 

(6)  Foliage  and  bark  of  different  trees. 

(7)  Bridges. 

(8)  Lighthouses. 

For  boys  and  girls  of  thirteen  or  fourteen,  conversational 
instruction  of  a  more  advanced  description  wdll  be  appre- 
ciated ;  and  their  interest  may  be  excited  concerning  : — 

(i)  Various  styles  of  architecture. 

(2)  Ancient  ruins  of  England. 

(3)  Ancient  ruins  of  Rome. 


206  CLASS    TALKS. 


(4)  Different  kinds  ot  artificial  light. 

(5)  Ancient  coins. 

(6)  Some  of  the  world's  greatest  poets  (with  portraits  and  specimens  of 

their  writings). 

(7)  Celebrated  painters  (illustrated  by  photographs  of  their  chief  works). 

Lazu<!  of  Health. — When  physiology  or  hygiene  are  not  taught  formally,  it 
is  desirable  that  the  elder  scholars  be  made  acquainted  with  the  fundamental 
imles  for  preserving  health,  the  eyesight,  etc.  It  is  of  little  if  any  use  to 
know  that  the  Latin  for  skull  is  cranium^  for  brain  cerebrum,  and  so  on  ;  but 
it  may  save  years  of  misery  and  discomfort  to  be  taught,  in  early  life,  the 
guiding  principles  of  hygiene,  and  the  necessity  that  exists  for  temperance, 
ventilation,  and  physical  exercise. 

Does  it  appear  to  our  readers  that  these  class-talks  are  but 
"Object  Lessons"  under  another  name?  Undoubtedly  all 
instruction  of  the  sort  may  be  classified  under  the  head  ot 
Oral  Teaching,  yet  these  "  General  Knowledge  Lessons"  differ 
widely  from  object  lessons  proper.  Especially  must  it  be 
noted  that  their  purpose  is  wholly  different.  That  of  the 
object  lesson  is,  chiefly,  the  quickening  of  the  power  to  observe, 
and  to  draw  conclusions.  The  function  ot  the  class-talk,  on 
the  contrary,  is  the  supplying  of  information.  We  may 
venture  to  say  that  its  aim  is  Culture — that  is,  if  it  be  correct 
to  define  culture  as — "The  knowledge  of  all  that  is  best  worth 
knowing."  To  cultivate  the  child's  sense  and  intelligence,  to 
improve  his  taste  and  judgment,  to  open  to  him  avenues  of 
pure  interest  and  enjoyment — this  is  the  office  of  the  conver- 
sational lesson. 

The  power  of  Rational  Enjoyment. — It  is  not  the 

least  ambitious  purpose  of  the  class-talk,  to  aid  in  training  tiie 
industrial  classes  of  the  community  to  take  their  pleasure 
rationally.  The  power  to  do  this  is  one  of  the  surest  signs 
that  the  youth  of  a  nation  are  being  educated;  it  is  proof  posi- 
tive that  civilization  and  culture  are  advancing.  But,  alas! 
tliis  sign  is  not,  at  present,  characteristic  ot  our  countrymen 

Much  is  now  said  and  written  about  the  desirability  ot 
throwing  open  art-galleries  and  museums  to  the  working-man. 


CLASS    TALKS.  20I 


and  also  of  allowing  him  more  frequent  opportunities  of 
"beholding  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  studying  the  treasures 
of  literature.  The  movement  is  a  just  and  a  righteous 
one;  yet  these  elevating  influences  would  be  thrown  away 
jipon  the  majority  of  our  labour-brothers.  To  assure  our- 
selves of  this,  we  have  but  to  note  their  demeanour  when 
holiday-making.  They  shew  little  more  appreciation  of 
lovely  scenery,  the  glorious  treasures  of  art,  or  the  curious 
and  interesting  specimens  stored  in  our  museums,  than  if 
they  were  stricken  with  blindness.  How  can  they  care  for 
such  objects  when  neither  eyes  nor  mind  have  been  trained 
by  education  to  understand  and  value  them  ? 

The  vagaries  and  vulgarities  of  the  English  public,  when 
pleasure-taking,  furnish  fruitful  material  for  the  comic  press ; 
but  they  can  only  be  a  source  of  sorrow  and  regret  to  those 
"who  love  their  country  and  that  great  working-population 
^vhich  can  boast  of  such  sterling  and  admirable  qualities,  and 
Avhich  ought  to  play  so  important  and  responsible  a  part  in  the 
ifuture  of  the  British  Empire. 

Who  can  Remedy  this  ? — Need  we  say  that  those 
who  are  answerable  to  God  and  man  for  combating  this  evil, 
are  the  powerful  class  to  whom  the  education  of  the  people  is 
•committed  ? 

Not  only  are  they  called — if  possible,  with  greater  urgency 
than  ever  before— to  lay  deep  the  foundations  of  religious  truth 
and  rectitude  in  the  hearts  of  their  pupils  ;  there  is  likewise 
anuch,  very  much,  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  mind-culture,  before 
■even  the  initial  steps  will  have  been  taken  towards  fitting  the 
juasses  to  take  up  the  dignified  and  honourable  position  on 
-life's  stage,  to  which — through  various  causes — they  are  now 
being  summoned.  By  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  alone,  the 
position  of  the  working-man  has  greatly  changed  ;  his  power 
for  good  or  evil  has  immensely  increased.  If  only  his  edu- 
■cational  advantages  increase  in  equal  ratio,  the  result  will 
he  eminently  satisfactory. 


C02  CLASS   TALKS. 


As  things  are  now  (and  leaving  out  of  the  question  definite 
religious  instruction)  it  is  impossible  to  beUeve  that  the 
education  given  in  elementary  schools  is  fitting  the  pupils  to- 
find  enjoyment,  later  on,  in  refined  pursuits,  or  opening  up  a 
path  to  the  intellectual  stores  of  other  ages,  or  pointing  the 
way  towards  those  sources  of  '*  sweetness  and  light "  which 
exist  even  in  this  sad  world  for  those  who  know  where  to- 
seek  them.  Thankfully  it  is  admitted,  that,  in  the  humbler 
walks  of  life,  many  are  to  be  found  with  a  keen  appreciation 
of  all  that  is  beautiful  and  ennobling,  but  this  cultivated  taste- 
is  theirs — spite  of  their  school-training,  not  as  a  consequence 
of  it. 

Drawing    not    Driving   towards   Knowledge. — 

It  is  a  great  art  to  know  how  to  make  the  mind  unfold  of 
itself,  and  take  in  that  new  material  which  it  can  assimilate ;. 
and,  in  developing  the  natural  powers  of  children's  minds,  and 
leading  them  to  seek  knowledge  of  their  own  free  will,  the 
class  talk  is  exceedingly  valuable.  What  a  child  learns, 
only  because  he  must^  is  not  retained,  but  knowledge  that 
is  acquired  pleasantly  and  willingly  will  be  found  again  after 
many  years.  The  teacher  who  allures  and  attracts  her  charges- 
into  the  paths  of  knowledge  is  like  the  shepherd  who  goes- 
before  and  leads  his  flock— not  the  dog,  who  only  gets  them. 
on  by  barking  and  snapping  from  behind. 

Advantages  to  the  Teacher. — A  class  talk,  properly 
conducted,  brings  the  learner's  mind  into  direct  contact  witb 
that  of  the  teacher,  who  will  thereby  be  the  better  enabled! 
to  remove  difficulties  and  throw  light  upon  what  was  pre- 
viously dark.  More  than  anything  else,  it  will  tell  the  teacher 
something  about  the  minds  she  has  to  educate,  and  so  shew  her 
plainly  the  kind  of  treatment  they  require.  Among  other 
disclosures,  it  will  reveal  depths  of  ignorance  in  her  pupils  of 
which  she  had  not  before  the  faintest  conception ;  and  this-- 
not  to  overwhelm  her  with  a  kind  of  despair,  but  to  incite  her 


CLASS    TALKS.  203 


to   make    brave,    hopeful,    and   yet   practical    plans   for   the- 
removal  of  that  ignorance. 

By  all  possible  means  Intelligence  must  b& 
Fostered.  —  Conversational  instruction,  when  freely  and', 
skilfully  used,  will  undeniably  be  found  of  great  assistance  ir> 
opening  the  minds  of  the  young,  and  extending  their  know- 
ledge ;   but  other  means  ought  to  be  sedulously  used. 

Well-directed  efforts  must  be  made  to  encourage  in  our- 
pupils  a  love  of  good  literature.  Besides  having  access  to  a 
school  library  and  works  of  reference,  the  elder  ones  should  be- 
guided  as  to  the  purchase  of  periodicals  adapted  to  their  age- 
and  attainments,  and — when  very  poor — these  should  be 
circulated  among  them  gratuitously.  Once  a  week,  some- 
interesting  volume  may  be  substituted  for  the  ordinary  readers,, 
and  a  friendly  chat  allowed  on  a  portion  of  what  is  read. 
There  are  few  reading-lessons  which  might  not  profitably  be- 
closed  with  conversation.  Should  the  subject  be  geography ,  how 
much  supplementary  information  could,  in  this  way,  be  given?: 
upon  the  peculiar  features  and  customs  that  distinguish  various:, 
countries.  If  history  is  the  study  of  the  hour,  what  lively  and 
animated  discussions  may  not  take  place  upon  the  characters;.- 
of  the  different  personages  mentioned,  or  the  cause  and  conse- 
quence  of  the  principal  events !  Let  teachers  but  learn  the 
art  of  successfully  conversing  with  their  classes,  and  they  wilF 
find  that  it  may  be  applied  with  advantage  to  many  ends 
little  dreamt  of  at  first. 

Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  this  Teaching.— The> 

course  of  general  instruction  suggested  in  this  chapter,  will — 
we  are  well  assured — seem  all  but  impossible  to  many  teachers..- 
(i)  They  will  urge,  with  great  show  of  reason,  that  the  work 
exacted  of  the  various  standards  is  already  so  arduous,  the 
attendance  of  the  scholars  so  uncertain,  that  no  margin  is  left 
for  acquiring  "  accomplishments  "  such  as  we  describe.  Too- 
true  is  it  that  there  are  difficulties  in  the  way.     So  long  as- 


■204  CLASS    TALKS. 


•one-fourth  of  a  child's  brief  school-Hfe  must  perforce  be  spent 
in  doing  sums,  his  true  education  will  suffer  —  and  suffer 
irreparably;  and  it  will  be  a  "venture  of  faith"  to  embark 
in  teaching  of  a  voluntary  character.  Yet,  we  pray  all 
teachers  to  believe  that,  if  they  have  but  courage  to  make 
this  venture,  they  will  have  their  reward — not  only  in  the 
testimony  of  a  good  conscience  that  they  have  done  their  best 
for  those  entrusted  to  their  care,  but  in  the  pupils'  greater 
aptitude  for  "  studies  of  obligation." 

(2)  It  may  be  objected  that  it  would  be  impossible  for 
«ven  the  best-informed  teachers  to  be  prepared  with  replies 
•to  all  the  questions  the  scholars  might  put. 

When  it  happens  that  the  teacher  feels  unable  to  supply 
information  on  some  point  raised,  she  must  either  promise 
to  obtain  it  at  the  first  opportunity,  or  direct  the  members  of 
the  class  to  undertake  the  search  themselves.  It  is  essen- 
tial to  this  mode  of  teaching  that  no  hindrance  should  be 
offered  :o  legitimate  inquiry.  On  the  contrary,  the  teacher 
should  gently  stimulate  that  mental  activity  which  is  evinced 
by  a  laudable  curiosity.  Conversation  should  be  unfettered, 
•except  by  necessary  restrictions,  and  all  the  pupils  allowed  to 
take  their  part  in  an  easy,  natural  manner.  So  far  as  is  pos- 
sible, stiffness  must  be  banished,  and  if  the  scholars  appear 
shy  and  dull,  they  should  be  brightened  by  the  introduction 
■of  a  fitting  anecdote  or  humorous  description  of  some 
incident. 

(3)  It  may  be  pleaded  that  the  children  of  elementary 
•schools  are  too  young  to  profit  by  such  training.  We  grant 
that  for  children  below  ten,  or  in  schools  clogged  with  those 
Half-time  Bye-laws  which  are  such  a  blot  upon  our  civiliza- 
tion, the  class-talks  can  hardly  bear  directly  on  culture, 
though  they  should  by  no  means  be  omitted.  But  many 
boys  and  girls  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  are  now  happily  to 
Ibe  found  in  elementary  schools,  and  the  number  of  these 
Avould  increase  enormously  if  parents  found  they  were  taught 
•nore  of  what  was  of  practical  use.     Such  children  may  be 


CLASS    TALKS.  205 


trained  to  take  lively  interest  in  anything  that  supplies  thenii 
with  a  7iew  idea. 

General-information  lessons  have  already  been  tried  in  some- 
schools,  and,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say,  have  been  received 
with  enthusiasm  by  the  boys.  The  sight  of  a  roll  of  pictures: 
on  their  teacher's  desk,  as  they  enter  school,  indicating  that 
diligence  in  the  tasks  prescribed  by  the  time-table  may 
probably  be  rewarded  by  a  class-talk,  incites  the  lads  (espe- 
cially the  big  fellows  of  thirteen  and  over)  to  work  with  alT 
possible  speed  and  diligence.  Many  anxious  glances  mean- 
while stray  towards  the  package  of  illustrations  or  specimens,, 
and  the  question  is  sometimes  hazarded:  "  Please,  sir,  would", 
you  mind  telling  us  what  it  is  going  to  be  about  ?  " 

Two  or  three  class-talks  are  given  below  as  specirnens,. 
but  no  hard-and-fast  lines  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  method' 
to  be  followed  in  this  extension  of  elementary  educationar 
work.  Teachers  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  follow  the  lead' 
suggested  by  the  children's  remarks  and  questions.  They- 
must,  however,  be  careful  not  to  let  the  **talk"  wander- 
far  from  the  matter  under  consideration.  While  leaving  nO' 
remark  unnoticed — unless  it  be  thoughtless  or  flippant  — 
they  must  lead  back  to  the  subject,  if  the  children  digress  too- 
widely.  It  must  be  recognised  that  this  kind  of  teaching- 
does  not  merely  enable  children  to  see  and  know  what  they 
could  not  otherwise  discover ;  it  teaches  the  orderly  presenta- 
tion of  the  points  to  be  studied. 

And,  while  class-talks  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  a 
wide  and  interesting  review  of  a  variety  of  subjects,  they  are- 
chiefly  valuable  because  they  arouse  interest,  stimulate  en- 
quiry, create  a  taste  for  good  reading,  and  help  the  learners 
to  realise — in  a  measure — the  greatness,  diversity,  and  beauty 
of  the  universe — nature,  art,  science. 

Best  of  all,  they  enrich  the  learners;  for  they  lift  the- 
horizon  and  shew  new  lands  to  explore,  new  worlds  for- 
them  to  conquer. 


^06  CLASS    TALKS. 


Class  Talks— CLOCKS. 

Teacher.  Now,  let  us  begin  our  class-talk.    How  long  shall  we  have  for  it  ? 
Pupils.  Half-an-hour  ;  till  the  clock  strikes  four. 

T.  Yes,  how  convenient  it  is  to  have  a  clock  in  the  room  to  tell  us  the  time. 
'We  will  take  clocks  for  the  subject  of  our  "  talk  "  to-day. 

Have  you  ever  thought  how  people  managed  before  they  were  invented  ? 
P.  The  sun  told  them  the  time.     They  knew  when  the  sun  rose  it  was 
morning,  and  when  it  set  it  was  evening,  and  when  high  up  in  the  sky  it  was 
-mid  day. 

T.  Yes,  but  that  would  not  tell  them  very  exactly,  would  it  ?  People  who 
lived  long,  long  ago  must  have  wanted  to  know  the  hours  more  particularly 
.  than  that,  and  so  they  set  to  work  to  find  ways  of  marking  the  hours. 

We  read  in  the  Bible  about  one  of  these  ways.  Can  anyone  remember  what 
.  king  it  was  who  asked  for  the  shadow  to  go  backwards  ? 

P.  Oh,  I  remember,  it  was  Hezekiah  who  asked  that  the  shadow  might  go 
back  ten  degrees.     We  read  about  it  a  little  while  ago. 

T.  Yes,  and  he  was  King  of  Judah  712  B.C.  That  is  the  first  time  we 
ever  read  in  histoiy  of  something  to  measure  time  by.  The  earliest  form  of 
•dial  is  believed  to  have  been  simply  a  column  which  cast  a  shadow  of  varying 
length  and  position. 

P.  But  how  did  that  mark  the  hours  ? 

T.  Probably  certain  of  the  hours  were  marked  in  some  way  on  the  ground. 
.  Afterwards  a  kind  of  dial-plate — a  little  like  a  clock-face — was  made.  On 
this  figures  were  graven,  and  the  shadow  cast  by  means  of  a  perpendicular 
piece  of  iron  fixed  upon  the  dial.  Now,  can  you  think  how  this  shewed  the 
.  time  ? 

P.  I  suppose  the  shadow  from  this  straight  piece  of  iron  was  something  like 
the  hand  of  a  clock,  and  pointed  to  the  figures ;  if  it  was  12  o'clock  to  the 
figures  12,  and  if  4  o'clock  to  4. 

But  that  would  not  tell  the  minutes.  It  must  have  been  like  a  clock  with 
only  the  small  hand. 

T.  Yes  ;  it  was  many  hundred  years  later  before  people  learnt  how  to  measure 
.  minutes.     Even  when  clocks  were  invented  they  were  for  a  long  time  called 
■"  horologes,"  a  word  which  means  "hour-tellers." 

Now,  try  to  think  of  another  reason  why  something  better  than  a  sun-dial  was 
.needed. 

P.  You  could  only  see  it  out-of-doors. 
T.  Any  other  reason  ? 

P.  Oh,  I  know,  it  did  not  tell  the  time  at  night. 
T.  Quite  true  ;  but  did  it  always  do  so  in  the  daytime  ? 
•  P,  No,  only  on  bright  sunny  days. 


CLASS    TALKS.  207 


T.  This  was,  perhaps,  why  the  ancients  invented  water-clocks,  which  they 
'Called  "clepsydras."  Some  people  think  they  were  used  in  Egypt  and  China 
many  years  before  sundials  were  thought  of. 

P.  I  wonder  what  they  were  like  ? 

T.  The  first  water-clocks  were  very  simple.  They  consisted  of  a  trans- 
parent vessel,  something  like  a  vase,  on  which  the  hours  were  marked.  At 
the  bottom  was  a  very  small  hole,  through  which  the  water  could  escape 
-gradually.     The  height  of  the  water  in  the  vessel  shewed  the  hour. 

P.  That  was  rather  a  poor  sort  of  concern.  When  you  said  it  was  a  clock, 
J  thought  it  would  have  been  something  like  our  clocks,  and  have  wheels. 

T.  Soon  after,  a  clever  man,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  invented  an  instrument 
:in  which  water  was  made  to  fall,  drop  by  drop,  upon  wheels.  What  would 
that  cause  the  wheels  to  do  ? 

P.  To  move.     To  go  round  and  round. 

T.  Yes,  and  as  they  went  round  they  moved  a  small  rod  that  pointed  to  the 
liours,  which  were  marked  on  a  diagram. 

P.  That  was  a  great  improvement. 

T.  We  must  not  forget  one  other  way  of  measuring  time.  Hour-glasses. 
I  will  draw  one  on  the  board.     {Draws  one.) 

P.  I've  seen  one,  only  it  was  not  an  hour-glass.  It  was  very  small,  and  the 
sand  ran  out  in  three  or  four  minutes. 

T.  That  must  have  been  an  egg-boiler  ;  meant  just  to  show  how  long  eggs 
should  be  boiled.  Hour-glasses,  of  course,  are  much  larger.  I  see  there  is 
someone  longing  to  tell  us  of  another  kind  of  clock.  Perhaps  one  which  an 
English  king  made. 

P.  Yes,  Alfred  the  Great's  candle  clock. 

T.  What  can  you  tell  us  about  it  ? 

P.  The  candle  lasted  just  eight  hours,  and  was  marked  with  coloured  rings 
to  tell  the  time. 

(2)  And  he  used  to  burn  three  in  the  twenty-four  hours — one  while  he  was 
asleep,  one  while  he  studied,  and  one  while  he  looked  after  his  kingdom. 

T.  Well,  now  we  are  getting  nearer  to  the  time  when  real  clocks  were 
invented.  So  many  people  have  been  said  to  be  the  inventors  of  wheel 
-clocks  that  I  cannot  tell,  for  certain,  who  did  at  first  find  out  how  to  make 
them. 

The  first  we  hear  of  in  England  was  placed  in  an  old  clock  tower  which 
•formerly  stood  opposite  the  gate  of  Westminster  Hall.     That  was  in  1288. 

The  second  was  put  in  Canterbury  Cathedral,  1292.  But  these  were 
brought  from  abroad.     How  do  you  think  the  English  learnt  to  make  clocks  ? 

P.  Perhaps  they  went  abroad  to  learn. 

T.  They  saw  these  clocks  when  they  visited  the  Continent,   and  then 


208  CLASS    TALKS. 


Edward  III.  invited  three  clever  clockmakers  to  come  from  Belgium  and  pur-- 
sue  their  trade  in  this  country.     Englishmen  soon  learnt  how  to  make  clocks 
for  themselves,  and  they  improved  quickly,  and  made  many  curious  kinds. 
P.  Were  they  very  expensive  then  ? 

T.  Indeed  they  were,  and  they  could  only  be  afforded  for  churches  and 
large  buildings.     Still,  by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  few  of  these  were 
without  them.     I  am  sure  you  would  like  to  see  some  of  the  quaint  old  clocks^ 
P.  Are  any  of  them  left  ? 

T.  Yes,  at  Wells,  Exeter,  or  Peterborough  Cathedrals  you  might  see  one. 
They  are  rather  wonderful,  for  they  tell  astronomical  facts  as  well  as  the  time. 
Thomas  Wallingford,  Abbot  of  S.   Albans,  was  the  first  Englishman  wha 
made  an  astronomical  clock. 
P.   What  was  it  like  ? 

T.  It  was  very  large,  and  shewed  the  minute,  hour,  day,  and  month  at  the 
same  time.  Then  it  also  pointed  out  the  revolutions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  fixed 
stars,  as  well  as  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea.  When  it  was  finished,  Walling- 
ford had  to  write  a  book  of  directions  as  to  how  it  was  to  be  wound  up  and. 
kept  in  order,  for  fear  the  monks  should  spoil  it. 

P.  What  a  clever  man  that  Abbot  must  have  been  ! 
T.   Do  you  remember  where  I  told  you  the  first  clocks  were  made  ? 
P.  In  Belgium  and  France  ;  but  I  fancy  we  soon  made  better  clocks  than  our 
teachers. 

T.  Oh,  they  did  not  stand  still.  Clever  mechanics  went  on  inventing  and 
improving,  and  some  marvellous  clocks  were  constructed.  The  one  at  Stras. 
burg  Cathedral  (made  in  1570)  is  famous  all  the  world  over.  Then,  at  Lyons 
Cathedral  there  is  another  nearly  as  wonderful. 

Supposing  we  finish  our  class-talk  to-day  with  the  story  of  the  clock  of. 
Lyons : — 

When  the  clock  strikes  the  hours,  a  door  opens,  two  figures  of  men  on  horse- 
back come  out,  encounter  each  other,  and  strike  the  hour  with  their  iron, 
mallets.  Then  they  retire,  another  door  opens,  and  the  figure  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  with  the  Holy  Child  in  her  arms,  is  seen ;  the  Wise  Men  from  the  East 
come  up  and  present  their  gifts,  and  a  procession  passes  by. 

This  clock  also  tells  about  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  tides,  and  seasons. 
The  ignorant  people  of  Lyons  behaved  very  badly  to  their  clever  fellow- 
townsman.  When  he  shewed  them  his  work  they  were  terrified,  and  thought 
an  evil  spirit  must  be  inside  the  clock.  So  they  broke  it  almost  to  pieces. 
But,  although  nearly  heart-broken  at  seeing  the  labour  of  so  many  years- 
destroyed,  he  set  bravely  to  work  to  put  it  together  again  ;  and,  by  the  time  it 
was  finished,  the  citizens  of  Lyons  had  grown  older  and  wiser. 
Now,  listen,  our  clock  is  striking,  and  we  must  leave  tft. 


CLASS    TALKS.  209 


WHY    LAWS    ARE    MADE. 
(For  Young  Children.) 

Teacher.  To-day  we  are  going  to  speak  about  the  laws  of  our  country. 
First,  we  must  try  to  find  out  why  laws  are  made. 

Perhaps  some  of  you  can  tell  me  about  rules  that  your  fathers  and  mothers 
have  made  for  their  boys  and  girls  at  home. 

Pupils.  My  father  has  made  a  rule  that  we  shall  all  be  in  before  dark. 

Mine  says  we  are  to  be  punctual  at  meals.  When  William  came  late  yester- 
day, father  said,  *'  Be  off,  you  know  the  rule,"  and  he  had  to  eat  his  dinner  in 
the  kitchen. 

Mother  says  that  her  rule  is — "Never  have  idle  hands."  "Up  in  the 
morning  early  "  is  another. 

T.  Those  are  very  good  rules.     Why  do  you  think  they  were  made  ? 

P.  To  remind  us  to  do  right. 

To  save  us  from  getting  into  trouble. 
To  keep  us  out  of  mischief. 

T.  Do  all  in  this  class  have  to  keep  these  rules  ? 

P.  No,  everyone  has  to  keep  his  own  home-rules. 

T,  Then  we  find  that  each  family  makes  its  own  rules  ;  and  that,  in  a  happy 
and  well-ordered  family,  good  rules  are  made  and  strictly  kept.  We  might 
give  these  family  rules  another  name  and  call  them  family  laws. 

When  new  children  are  admitted  into  the  class,  what  is  the  first  thing  they 
are  told  to  do  ? 

P.  To  read  the  rules.  Some  of  the  rules  are  about  order ;  some  about 
punctuality ;  some  about  good  conduct. 

T.  Yes ;  they  teach  you  how  to  behave  to  your  teachers  and  each  other. 
Now  give  me  the  other  name  for  school  rules. 

P.  School  laws. 

T.  What  would  happen  if  you  were  to  break  the  rules  ? 

P.  We  should  lose  our  marks  (place  in  class,  etc.) 

T.  Suppose  you  went  on  breaking  them,  what  then  ? 

P.  We  should  lose  the  prize  or  be  punished  in  some  other  way. 

T.  And  if  anyone  still  persisted  in  breaking  the  rules  ? 

P.  He  would,  perhaps,  be  turned  out  of  the  school. 

T.  Then  he  would  have  lost  something  more  valuable  than  a  prize — his 
character.  So,  you  see,  if  we  want  to  be  happy  and  get  on  well  in  school, 
there  is  something  we  have  to  be  careful  about.     What  is  this  ? 

I'.  We  must  take  care  to  keep  the  school  laws. 

T.  Can  you  tell  me  who  made  these  laws  ? 

P.  The  managers  or  the  teachers. 

T.  I  am  going  to  write  two  rules  on  the  board,  and  you  shall  tell  me  the  use 
of  them. 

P 


210  CLASS    TALKS. 


(1)  All  movements — such  as  crossing  the  room,  opening  or  shutting  doors 
and  desks— to  be  made  as  quietly  as  possible. 

(2)  No  pupil  to  open  another's  desk. 

P.  The  first  rule  is  made  for  the  good  of  the  class— to  prevent  interruption 
and  disturbance. 

The  second  is  made  for  the  benefit  of  each  pupil  in  the  class — to  protect  his 
property. 

T.  Now,  try  to  understand  this  :  Laws  are  made  to  prevent  us  from  injuring 
others,  and  to  prevent  others  from  injuring  us. 

Did  your  father  write  down  his  rules  ? 

P.  No,  father  told  us  of  them. 

T.  "Why  was  it  not  necessary  to  write  them  down  ? 

P.  Because  we  all  knew  them. 

T.  Now,  think,  and  tell  me  why  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  school  rules 
written  ?     There  are  several  answers. 

P.  Because  new  pupils  come  in  who  do  not  know  them. 
Because  there  are  so  many,  that  we  might  forget  some. 
If  anyone  begins  to  talk  or  make  a  noise,  it  is  so  easy  to  say — "  It's 
against  the  rules,  read  them. " 

T.  There  is  another  reason.  You  know  it  is  my  duty  to  see  that  the  rules 
are  kept.     Now,  what  would  happen  if  I  went  away  ? 

P.  Another  teacher  would  come. 

T.  Yes,  and  if  the  rules  were  not  written  up  ? 

P.  She  would  not  know  anything  about  them. 

T.  Could  not  the  scholars  tell  her  ? 

P.  It  would  throw  us  back  with  our  work. 

T.  And  you  might  forget  some  of  the  rules,  or  you  might  by  mistake  put  in 
some  that  were  not  there  ;  then  what  would  happen  ? 

P.  There  might  be  arguing  and  disputing  about  it. 

T.  Therefore,  to  preserve  peace  and  order,  written  laws  are  necessary.  By. 
and-bye  you  will  leave  school  and  grow  up  to  be  men  and  women.  Let  us  find 
out  what  laws  you  will  have  to  keep  then.  If  a  man  were  to  ride  in  a  hansom 
and  then  refuse  to  pay  his  fare,  what  would  happen  ? 

P.  The  cabman  would  summon  him  before  the  magistrate  and  he  would  be 
obliged  to  pay. 

T.  Yes,  the  law  would  oblige  him  to  pay.  And  suppose  a  man  gave  short 
weight  or  short  measure  ? 

P.  Then  the  law  could  compel  him  to  use  right  weights  and  measures  and 
to  pay  those  people  whom  he  had  cheated. 

T.  There  are  many  laws  in  England  for  the  protection  of  the  weak.  These 
laws  will  not  allow  children  to  work  in  coal  mines.  They  also  compel  masters 
to  take  all  necessary  care  for  the  safety  and  welfare  of  their  servants  and  work- 
people.    They  inflict  punishment  on  those  who  are  cruel  to  horses  and  other 


CLASS    TALKS.  211 


<lumb  creatures.  These  are  some  of  the  best  and  most  humane  of  our  laws. 
Now  repeat  altogether — The  laws  of  the  nation,  as  well  as  the  laws  of  the 
family  and  school^  are  made  to  prevent  our  doing  harm  to  others,  and  to  prevent 
others  doing  harm  to  us. 

The  laws  of  England  uphold  justice,  mercy  and  truth ;  we  should  be  proud 
of  belonging  to  so  well-governed  a  country.  Can  you  tell  any  duty  we  owe  to 
'Our  country  in  this  respect  ? 

P.  We  must  obey  the  laws  ourselves. 

T.  If  we  do  this,  we  may  live  in  great  peace  and  safety  ;  for  the  Bible  says 
— "The  law  is  not  a  terror  to  well-doers  but  to  evil-doers."  When  we  speak 
dn  this  manner  of  the  law,  what  law  do  we  mean  ? 

P.  The  law  of  England. 
The  law  of  our  country. 
Our  national  law. 

This  elementary  information  should  be  followed  up,  on  a 
subsequent  occasion,  with  conversation  upon  the  nature  of 
the  government  under  which  we  live  and  the  laws  we  are 
'Called  upon  to  obey,  especially  those  which  affect  such  every- 
day details  as  rent,  taxes,  rates,  buying  and  selling,  trespass, 
agreements,  etc. 


BRIDGES. 

Pictures  of  various  kinds  of  bridges— ancient  and  modern — 
should  be  provided. 

Teacher.  We  will  begin  to-day  by  seeing  who  can  give  the  best  definition 
of  a  bridge  : 

Pupils.  A  roadway  over  a  river. 
An  archway  built  across  a  stream. 
A  road  across  a  river  or  valley. 

T.  I  like  the  last  answer  best,  because  bridges  now  are  built  across  valleys 
and  roads  quite  as  often  as  over  rivers.  Here  (shewing  a  picture)  is  a  very 
primitive  kind  of  bridge  ;  just  the  trunk  of  a  tree  thrown  across  from  one  bank 
•to  another. 

P.  That  was  all  very  well  for  a  narrow  stream,  but  stronger  and  more  useful 
bridges  must  have  been  needed. 

T.  Yes,  the  next  step,  I  think,  was  to  prop  up  the  bridge  in  the  centre  by 
.means  of  a  post  planted  in  the  middle  of  the  river  bed.  But  you  will  see  at 
once  why  these  wooden  posts  were  not  secure. 

P.  The  water  would  rot  the  wood  and  make  it  give  way. 


212  CLASS    TALKS. 


T.  And  so  even  in  very  early  times,  stone  was  used  for  the  piers  whicb 
supported  the  structure.  The  Chinese  seem  to  have  been  wonderfully  skilfuB 
in  bridge -building,  but  do  you  know  which  was  the  first  nation  to  build  stone: 
bridges  ? 

P.  I  expect  the  Romans. 

T.  Quite  right ;  but  what  is  your  reason  for  thinking  so  ? 

P.  They  were  the  great  road-makers,  and  as  they  always  made  their  roads 
in  long,  perfectly  straight  lines,  they  must  often  have  needed  to  carry  them- 
over  rivers. 

T.  Yes,  and  the  work  of  the  Romans  was  always  very  strong  and  durable  ;. 
so  that  we  might  quite  have  expected  them  to  be  the  inventors  of  the  stone, 
bridge. 

What  is  the  most  usual  shape  for  bridges  ? 

P.  The  arch — for  stone  bridges. 

T.  The  Romans  seem  to  have  introduced  and  always  to  have  made  that: 
form  of  bridge.  The  first  arched  stone  bridge  we  read  of  was  the  Senator's- 
Bridge  at  Rome,  built  127  B.C. 

P.  Are  any  of  the  old  Roman  bridges  still  standing  ? 

T.  A  few  are,  and  there  are  extensive  remains  of  several  in  Italy,  France,. 
Spain  and  Portugal.     Can  you  tell  me  why  we  find  them  in  these  countries  ? 

P.  Because  the  Romans  conquered  them,  and  they  taught  the  people  how 
to  build. 

T.  You  are  right ;  the  Romans  seem  to  have  taught  the  art  of  bridge- 
building  throughout  Europe. 

In  the  1 2th  century,  a  religious  society  was  formed  called  '*  The  Brethren' 
of  the  Bridge."  The  object  of  their  work  was  two-fold— to  protect  travellers^ 
and  repair  and  protect  bridges.  Tell  me  in  what  way  rivers  must  be  crossed, 
when  there  is  no  bridge. 

P.  By  boat. 

Where  the  water  is  shallow  travellers  can  ride  across. 

T.  You  mean  that  people  must  either  be  ferried  across,  or  ford  the  stream.. 
In  old  times,  this  exposed  them  to  danger,  as  it  gave  robbers  the  opportunity 
of  falling  upon  them.  Then  it  was  that  "  The  Brethren  of  the  Bridge  "  came 
to  the  rescue.  One  of  the  bridges  built  by  them  is  still  standing  at  Avignon  ;. 
also  a  very  noted  one  at  Lyons,  with  twenty  arches. 

P.  They  knew  how  to  build  in  olden  days  ! 

T.  Yes,  indeed.  Now  before  we  come  to  modern  bridges,  I  think  we 
ought  to  notice  some  more  old  ones.  When  I  tell  you  that  one  town  in  Italy 
has  three  hundred  and  forty  public  bridges,  1  don't  think  you  will  have  much 
difficulty  in  guessing  the  name  ! 

P.  Venice,  of  course. 

T.  Yes ;  but  curiously  enough,  the  Grand  Canal  (that  forms  the  High 
Street  of  Venice)  has  only  one  bridge  over  it — called  the  Rialto.     The  original^ 


CLASS   TALKS.  21 3 


bridge  was  made  of  wood  ;  but  this  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  present 
one  is  built  of  marble,  and  has  only  one  arch,  94  ft.  wide,  which  spans  the 

■  canal.     Every  stone-mason  in  Venice  was  employed  in  the  work  of  building  it, 

■  and  the  people  at  that  time  so  little  believed  in  the  possibility  of  this  wonder- 
:ful  one-arched  bridge  being  ever  finished,  that  they  used  to  jeer  at  the 
architect  and  say— "When  hens  have  teeth,  the  bridge  will  be  finished.' 
After  the  work  was  completed,  the  workmen  carved  these  words  upon  a 
-corner  of  the  bridge. 

Here  is  a  picture  of  the  Rialto. 

P.  Why,  it  looks  like  a  street  built  across  the  canal. 
Are  those  shops  ? 

T.  Yes,  two  rows  of  houses  divide  the  bridge  into  three  streets.  The  middle 
■street  is  the  principal  one,  and  is  full  of  jewellers'  shops. 

P.  How  curious  !     There  are  no  bridges  in  England  like  that,  are  there  ? 

T.  No,  not  now ;  though  on  the  Continent  there  are  several. 

Old  London  Bridge,  which  was  finished  in  King  John's  reign,  had  houses  on- 
it.  But  we  must  leave  the  old  bridges  and  come  to  modern  times.  The  arched 
bridges  made  ot  stone,  though  they  were  used  for  so  many  hundred  years, 
at  length  were  superseded.  Look  at  this  view  of  the  Tay  Bridge,  and  com- 
pare it  with  our  first  picture  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree  thrown  across  a  stream. 

P.  There  is  no  stone  or  wood  about  the  Tay  Bridge,  is  there  ?  It  seems 
built  entirely  ol  iron. 

T.  It  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  foundations,  which  are  of  stone  and 
•concrete.  Until  the  era  ot  railways,  stone  was  always  used,  but  when  skilful 
engineers  found  out  what  could  be  done  with  iron,  bridges  were  first  partly, 
and  are  now  entirely  built  of  it. 

In  1878  an  iron  bridge  was  built  over  the  Estuary  of  the  Tay.  It  had  taken 
•six  years  to  build,  and  cost  ;^35o,ooo. 

The  bridge  was  for  a  railway  to  pass  over.  Passengers  from  Aberdeen 
"to  Edinburgh  could  make  the  journey  in  two  hours  less  time  than  before. 
Why  was  this  ? 

P.  They  could  cross  the  Estuary,  and  so  make  a  short  cut. 

T.  But,  sad  to  say,  about  one  year  after  the  bridge  was  finished  there  was  a 
•violent  hurricane  of  wind  and  rain  one  Sunday  night.  A  train  was  crossing, 
Avhen  suddenly,  without  an  instant's  warning,  the  bridge  fell,  carrying 
the  train  into  the  raging  waters  below.  Everything  was  washed  away  and  90 
Jives  lost. 

P.  How  terrible  !  surely  no  one  ever  tried  to  make  another  bridge  in  that 
■dangerous  place. 

T.  On  the  contrary,  the  railway  company  lost  no  time  in  arranging  for 
;another  to  be  built. 

P.  Did  they  not  choose  a  less  exposed  situation  ? 

T.  The    old    foundations    had  not  given    way,    and    the    engineer    first 


214  CLASS   TALKS. 


proposed  to  use  them  again,  which  would  have  saved  expense.  It  was  decided, 
however,  that  it  would  be  wiser  to  begin  a  new  bridge  6o-ft.  below  the* 
former  one. 

P.  Below  !  then  it  would  be  a  still  longer  bridge  than  the  first,  for  the- 
Estuary  of  the  Tay  widens  so  rapidly. 

T.  It  is.  This  bridge  measures  over  io,ooo-ft.  It  was  first  used  for 
traffic  at  the  Queen's  Jubilee. 

The  Forth  Bridge  is  even  more  remarkable  on  account  of  its  height — the  road- 
way along  which  the  trains  run  being  nearly  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  dome  of 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  while  the  highest  part  of  the  bridge  is  higher  than  the- 
cross  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome.  The  first  iron  bridge  was  built  over  the  Severn- 
at  Coalbrookdale,  in  1777.  Look  next  at  this  picture  and  tell  me  what  points- 
of  difference  you  can  see  between  the  bridge  it  represents,  and  the  others  we 
have  been  speaking  about. 

P.  It  looks  hollow,  as  if  the  road  went  through  instead  of  over  it. 
T.  This  is  why  it  is  called  a  Tubular  bridge.     The  first  of  this  kind  was- 
designed   about   fifty   years  ago,    by   Robert  Stephenson,    son  of  the  great 
engineer.      It  carries  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  Railway  over  the  Menaiv 
Straits. 

P.   It  was  a  strange  kind  of  bridge  to  invent. 

T.  Necessity  was  the  mother  of  invention  in  this  case.  Probably  Stephen- 
son would  never  have  thought  of  constructing  a  bridge  in  the  shape  of  a  tube,. 
if  he  had  not  been  told  that  the  roadway  must  be  103  ft.  above  high  water 
mark  ;  an  arch  of  that  height  could  not  have  been  made. 

P.  It  seems  wonderful  that  such  huge  and  heavy  tubes  could  have  beenf 
hoisted  to  such  a  height. 

T.  Indeed  it  was  no  easy  matter  ;  each  of  the  four  centre  tubes  weighs  over 
1,800  tons.  They  were  made  on  shore,  then  floated  on  pontoons  to  the  piers,, 
and  lifted  by  machinery.  The  bridge  took  five  years  to  build.  Robert 
Stephenson  built  a  similar  bridge  at  Conway,  in  North  Wales. 

P.  There  is  one  kind  of  bridge  you  have  not  told  us  about — the  Suspension) 
Bridge. 

T.   Perhaps  you  will  be  surprised  to  hear  that  it  is  of  very  ancient  origin. 
The  people  of  Peru  made  a  great  number  of  bridges  over  the  passes  of  the- 
Andes,  which  were  a  simple  kind  of  suspension  bridge. 
P.   Not  of  iron,  I  suppose  ? 

T.  No  ;  they  were  made  of  a  strong  kind  of  rope  woven  from  the  bark  of 
trees.  Sometimes  a  sort  of  roadway  was  formed,  but  more  often  a  basket  was 
slung  upon  the  rope  and  drawn  backwards  and  forwards  from  one  side  to  the 
other.     Even  at  the  present  day  this  contrivance  is  still  used. 

The  Chinese  made  suspension  bridges  with  iron  chains  at  a  very  early  date. 
P.  They  are  often  called  chain  bridges,  are  they  not,  instead  of  suspensioifc 
bridges  ? 


CLASS    TALKS.  215 


T.  Sometimes.  The  first  English  one  was  thrown  across  the  Tweed,  at 
Ikrwick.  There  is  a  beautiful  bridge  of  this  kind  at  Clifton,  over  the  river 
Avon,  and  there  are  many  others  both  in  England  and  America. 

P.  You  spoke  just  now  about  pontoons  ;  what  are  they  ? 

T,  Flat-bottomed  boats  or  barges,  used  in  constructing  military  bridges. 
Why  are  quickly-made  bridges  wanted  in  war,  do  you  suppose  ? 

P.  In  making  long  marches,  the  troops  would  have  to  cross  rivers,  or  arms 
of  the  sea,  where  there  were  no  bridges. 

T.  Why  could  they  not  be  ferried  across  in  small  boats  ? 

P.  It  would  take  too  long,  the  enemy  would  gain  an  advantage. 

The  cannons  and  gun-carriages  could  not  be  conveyed  in  small  boats. 

Nor  the  cavalry. 

Nor  the  baggage-waggons,  tents  and  stores. 

How  is  a  pontoon-bridge  put  together  ? 

T.  There  are  various  ways.  The  commonest  plan  is  to  place  the  pontoons 
at  equal  distances  across  the  water — from  eight  to  sixteen  feet  apart — fixing 
each  in  its  place  with  anchors.  A  platform  of  planks  is  then  laid  from  one  to 
another.  In  this  manner  a  roadway  can  be  formed  eleven  feet  wide  or  more. 
Some  pontoons  are  now  made  which  are  divided  into  four  compartments.  Why 
is  this  ? 

P.  Perhaps  in  order  that  they  may  be  taken  to  pieces  and  more  easily  trans- 
ported from  one  place  to  another. 

T.  That  may  be  one  reason,  but  not  the  chief  one.  When  a  boat  springs  a 
bad  leak,  what  happens  to  it  ? 

P.  Generally  it  sinks. 

T.  True,  but  this  would  be  a  serious  matter  if  the  boat  formed  part  of  a 
bridge. 

P.  Oh,  I  know  now  !  Of  course,  if  there  was  a  leak,  and  the  boat  was 
divided  into  four,  the  water  would  only  fill  one-fourth  of  the  boat. 

T.  Yes ;  there  would  be  no  serious  consequences,  for  the  pontoon  would 
keep  afloat. 

Army  bridges  have  been  known  from  early  times.  The  Romans  used 
wicker-work  boats  covered  with  hides,  to  support  the  timber  platform. 


siO 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


Composition. 

aOMPOSITION  is  the  art  of  expressing  one's  thoughts 
by  means  of  written  words. 

It  may  be  observed  that  no  subject  is  better  calcu- 
lated than  this  to  shew  the  quality  of  the  education  given 
in  a  school.  Nothing  can  afford  a  clearer  proof  that  a  pupil's 
faculties  have  been  carefully  cultivated,  than  his  ability, 
first,  to  think  intelligently  upon  a  given  subject,  and  then  to 
clothe  his  ideas  m  clear,  correct  language. 

Efforts  of  the  Department  to  improve  Composi- 
tion.— Our  educational  authorities  have  recently  endeavoured 
to  direct  the  attention  of  teachers  to  this  important  point, 
"The  Instructions  to  Inspectors"  recommend  that,  "From 
the  first,  the  teaching  of  the  English  language  should  be  sup- 
plemented by  simple  exercises  in  composition;  e.g.,  when  a 
word  is  defined,  the  scholar  should  be  called  on  to  use  it  in  a 
sentence  of  his  own."  We  will  now  proceed  to  shew  how  these 
wise  counsels  may  be  so  carried  out  as  to  bear  good  truit. 


Composition  in  the  first  four  Standards.— It  the 

query  be  put — In  which  standard  should  language  lessons 
commence?  We  reply — In  the  lowest,  if  not  in  the  infant 
school.  Until  young  children  have  learnt  to  *'  Talk  with  the 
pencil"  they  must  have  plenty  of  oral  practice  in  expressing' 
their  thoughts.     A  beginning  may  be  made  as  follows : — 

Let  the  teacher  write  a  familiar  word  on  the  board  (or 
point  tp  one  on  the  spelling  sheet)  and  ask  the  children  to 


COMPOSITION. 


217 


make  sentences  which  shall  contain  it.  She  may  reward  the 
one  who  does  this  best,  by  writing  up  his  "composition"  for 
^the  admiration  of  the  rest  of  the  class.  Then  another  word 
may  be  taken  in  the  same  way,  and  so  forth. 

Now  and  again,  the  teacher  may  make  up  a  little  story, 
.and  ask  the  children  to  reproduce  it  in  their  own  words. 

If  these  simple  exercises  are  persevered  with,  day  after  day, 
ithe  class  will  not  only  acquire  ease  of  expression,  but  will  also 
"be  brightened  in  other  ways  ;  and  this  oral  practice  will  form 
-an  excellent  preparation  for  the  next  stage  in  composition, 
viz. : — 

Expressing  thoughts  with  Pen  or  Pencil. — The 

idea  must  be  in  the  child's  mind  before  he  can  express  it; 
and  it  will  be  found  necessary  at  the  outset  to  suggest 
some  ideas.  To  this  end,  let  the  teacher  (for  example)  point 
to  the  clock,  or  take  a  letter  out  of  her  pocket,  or  walk 
across  the  schoolroom,  saying,  at  the  same  time,  "Tell  me 
upon  your  slates  what  I  have  done."  Or,  let  her  call  out  one 
or  two  children  and  let  them  do  something  which  their 
•companions  may  write  about,  such  as  shutting  the  door, 
working  a  sum  on  the  blackboard,  or  shaking  hands. 

A  further  development  of  this  exercise  consists  in  saying 
.how  the  action  is  done,  and,  with  a  little  training,  may  result 
in  the  introduction  of  many  every-day  words  and  descriptive 
phrases. 

For  instance,  the  scholars  will  soon  learn  to  describe  the 
-manner  in  which  two  of  their  companions  sit  down — "on 
chairs,"  "side  by  side,"  or  "one  just  in  front  of  the  other." 
Or  again,  they  will  state  that  this  child  dropped  a  pencil,  and 
that  one  picked  it  up  "directly,"  "in  a  minute,"  or  "at  once." 
They  can  be  led  on  to  introduce  prepositions,  as  they  describe 
liow  a  certain  scholar  "  walked /rom  one  end  of  the  room  to 
the  other,"  and  "  put  a  book  under  the  desk,  or  on  a  table." 

This  is  a  particularly  useful  and  entertaining  exercise — one 
in  which  children  cannot  fail  to  take  delight. 


2l8  COMPOSITION. 


The  next  step. — There  is  no  doubt  that  children,  with 
few  exceptions,  find  even  these  initial  efforts  difficult ;  but  a. 
skilful  teacher  will  lead  them  on  very  gradually.  The  next 
step  may  consist  in  proposing  some  simple  subject  to  the  class^ 
and  desiring  them  to  write  three,  four,  or  six  sentences 
about  it. 

The  following  examples  may  serve  to  illustrate  our 
meaning : — 

Subject—"  Street  Lamps." 

**  The  lamps  are  lighted  at  dusk." 

"  I  like  to  see  the  row  of  lights  all  along  the  road." 

**  All  night  long  the  light  from  the  street  lamp  shines  into  my  room." 

**  One  of  the  lamps  was  broken,  so  the  wind  blew  out  the  light." 

"Tram-cars." 

"  The  tram-cars  pass  down  our  street." 

**  You  can  go  a  long  way  on  a  tram-car  for  a  penny." 

**  I  never  know  what  to  do  with  the  ticket  given  me  in  the  tram-car." 

"  When  the  tram-car  is  loaded,  the  poor  horses  can  hardly  pull  it  along. *^ 

Connecting  Sentences. — As  soon  as  tolerable  facility 
has  been  attained  in  the  correct  formation  of  simple  sentences,, 
the  children  may  be  trained  to  connect  two  or  more  state- 
ments by  means  of  suitable  conjunctions  and  relative 
pronouns.  Thus:  suppose  the  word  chosen  to  be  "London,'* 
one  child  would  perhaps  say — "  London  is  the  largest  city  in- 
the  world";  another — "I  was  born  in  London";  and  a  third — 
"  London  is  on  the  river  Thames."  From  these  simple 
sentences  may  be  derived — "  London,  the  largest  city  in  the 
world,  is  on  the  river  Thames."  "  I  was  born  in  London,, 
which  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world,  and  stands  on  the  river 
Thames." 

How  can  Children   be    taught    to    describe  P — 

Descriptive  writing  is  not  easy,  but  if  good  use  is  made  of' 
objects  and  pictures,  the  scholars  will  soon  be  plentifully 
supplied  with  ideas;  especially  if  a  little  judicious  assistance- 
is   afforded,    and   too   much   not   expected  at  first-     Should 


COMPOSITION.  219 


they  seem  shy  and  dull  about  giving  expression  to  their 
thoughts,  they  must  be  encouraged  with  all  ingenious  kind- 
ness, and  not  suffered  to  perceive  that  their  teacher  is 
disheartened  by  their  imperfect  efforts.  It  may  inspirit  them 
— after  placing  a  picture  in  front  of  the  class — to  write  some 
such  leading  questions  on  the  board  as — "What  things  (or 
persons)  do  you  see  in  this  picture?"  "Where  are  they?" 
"What  are  they  doing?"  "What  do  you  suppose  they  are 
going  to  do?"  "What  names  will  you  give  the  persons  in  the 
picture?"  (N.B. — Let  the  scholars  give  names  according  to- 
their  fancy.) 

This  will  give  them  a  good  start,  and  before  long  they  will 
be  able  to  make  original  and  intelligent  remarks  upon  any 
picture  shewn  them. 

Let  the  Scholars  be  trained  to  use  their  eyes, — 

At  times,  the  class  may  exercise  their  descriptive  powers - 
upon  some  object  taken  from  the  school  museum.  But  here 
the  teacher  must  be  on  her  guard  against  expecting  them  to- 
see  all  that  is  apparent  to  herself  in  the  article  exhibited.  At 
first,  a  child  sees  very  little  in  an  object.  Least  of  all  does  he- 
discover  its  various  properties  and  uses. 

The  rule  to  be  followed  is :  Place  the  article  before  the 
pupil,  and  let  him  use  his  natural  faculties  to  see  in  it  all  that 
he  can.  Then,  by  skilful  questioning  and  suggestions,  help- 
him  to  see  more.  Follow  the  child  instead  of  making  himi 
follow  you.  Ideas  grow  by  degrees,  as  everyone  who  has. 
tried  to  follow  the  workings  of  a  child's  mind,  will  have- 
proved  for  himself.  The  Great  Teacher  gives  us  the  true 
principle  of  all  growth  in  the  words — "First  the  blade,  theiii 
the  ear,  after  that  the  full  corn  in  the  ear." 

Accordingly,  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  interrupt  the  logicali 
sequence  of  ideas  while  they  are  forming  in  a  pupil's  mind- 
This  is  sometimes  done  with  a  view  to  helping  him  to  clearer 
and  more  correct  notions ;  but  it  will  be  found  that  a  maimed^ 
instead  of  a  perfect  conception,  is  the  result. 


■220  COMPOSITION. 


Other  Exercises  in  Sentence-writing.  —  Let  the 

•class  have  frequent  practice  in  altering  the  form  of  a  sentence. 
To  begin  with,  let  declaratory  sentences  be  changed  into 
the  interrogative  form  ;  example — 

It  rains.     Does  it  rain  ?    The  dog  growled.     Did  the  dog  growl  ? 

Again,  these  sentences  may  take  the  exclamatory  form, 
as — 

How  fast  it  rains  !     How  the  dog  growls  ! 

A  number  of  similar  examples  should  be  given,  until  the 
•children  make  the  change  from  one  form  to  another  with 
perfect  readiness. 

Vary  the  Arrangement  of  the    Words. — By  a 

different  arrangement  of  words  and  clauses,  much  variety 
may  be  introduced.  Pupils  may  be  profitably  exercised  in 
■changing  the  position  of  words  in  a  sentence,  without  altering 
the  meaning,  e.g. : — 

London  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  The  largest  city  in  the  world  is 
London. 

The  form  of  the  verb  changed.— ^.^.  :— 

Perseverance  overcomes  every  difficulty.  Every  difficulty  is  overcome  by 
perseverance. 

The  farmer  tills  the  ground.     The  ground  is  tilled  by  the  farmer. 
His  horse  threw  him.     He  was  thrown  by  his  horse. 

Phrases  Substituted  for  Words.— Accuracy  of  ex- 
pression may  be  gained  by  requiring  the  pupils  to  substitute 
:phrases  for  certain  words,  and  vice  versa.     Example  : — 

He  wore  a  fe/t  hat — a  hat  made  of  felt.  Many  people  \Cg.^  flattery — to  be 
flattered.  He  waited  anxiously— V4\\}ci  much  anxiety.  He  accused 
them  of  ingratitude — of  being  ungrateful. 

Sometimes  one  word  will  express  the  meaning  of  a  whole 
■phrase,  and  it  is  excellent  practice  for  children  to  summariza 
in  this  way.     e.g. : — 

He  i«  always  trying  to  benefit  others.     He  is  very  benevolent. 


COMPOSITION.  221 


This  seemed  a  fit  time  for  executing  his  purpose.     This  was  his  oppor- 
tunity. 

There  are  thousands  of  plants  growing  under  the  waters  of  the  ocean.. 
There  are  thousands  of  submarine  plants. 

The  above  are  a  few  of  the  ways  by  which  children  in 
Standards  I.  to  IV.  can  gain  experience  in  simple  composition.. 
The  intelligent  teacher  will  devise  many  similar  plans.  The 
main  point  is  to  give  the  scholars  abundant  reiterated  practice 
in  each.  A  few  desultory  lessons  will  not  prove  of  the  slightest . 
service. 


Composition  in  the  higher  Standards.— Daily  prac- 
tice according  to  the  system  we  have  set  forth  ought  to  have 
produced  considerable  ease  and  fluency  ere  the  higher  classes 
are  reached.  Let  us,  nevertheless,  entreat  teachers  and 
examiners  to  bear  in  mind  what  immature  beings  are  children 
under  twelve,  and  how  irrational,  nay,  how  cruel  it  would  be  to  ■ 
expect  from  them  anything  approaching  finish  and  elegance 
of  style.  It  should  surely  suffice  if  such  juvenile  students 
think,  speak,  and  write  like  thoughtful,  well-educated  children, 
A  school  ought  to  be  a  Kinder-garten,  not  a  forcing  house. 
An  infant  prodigy  is  a  sorrowful  sight.  Let  children  think 
and  act  after  the  manner  of  children.  S.  Paul  had  one  of 
the  keenest  intellects  the  world  has  ever  known,  yet  even  he 
testified  of  himself:  "  When  I  was  a  child  I  spake  as  a  child,. 
I  thought  as  a  child,  I  understood  as  a  child." 

Having  given  this  caution,'"  we  will  now  consider  how 
the  study  of  composition  may  be  continued  in  the  upper 
Standards : — 

Reproducing:  Stories. — In  Standard  V.  the  children 
must  have  practice  in  writing  short  stories.  The  first  point 
to  insist  upon  is,  that  no  subject  shall  be  taken  in  hand  until 
it  is  thoroughly  understood ;  this  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
close  questioning.      The  second   is  of  no  less   importance:. 


222  COMPOSITION. 


1 


Each  child  must  be  strictly  forbidden  to  begin  a  story  till  he 
Ihas  a  clear  idea  of  what  he  is  going  to  say,  and  has  made  an 
•outline  sketch  of  his  composition. 

There  are  various  ways  of  training  children  to  write  short 
•stories.     The  following  plan  is  one  of  the  best : — 

Begin  by  reading  the  story,  with  such  explanations  as 
■  appear  needful.  While  careful  to  make  no  actual  addition  to 
the  subject-matter,  change  the  words  and  paraphrase  freely, 
:in  order  to  bring  home  the  meaning  more  forcibly  to  the  pupils* 
Next,  put  a  plain  outline  of  the  story  upon  the  blackboard' 
•and  let  the  children  supply  details,  which  you  will  write 
on  the  board — if  it  appears  best.  Take  each  heading 
separately,  and  elicit  all  you  can  respecting  it,  before  pro- 
ceeding to  the  next.  The  outline  only  being  left  on  the  board, 
the  pupils  will,  in  the  last  place,  be  required  to  write  out  the 
story  as  well  as  they  can. 

Even  a  short  anecdote  or  fable  should  not  be  written  until 
definite  headings  have  been  drawn  out.  An  exceedingly  easy 
-example  is  given  below : — 

Fable—"  The  V/oU  in  Sheep's  Clothing." 

A  wolf  dressed  himself  up  in  the  skin  of  a  sheep ;  and  by  this  means 
contriving  to  creep  in  among  the  flock,  he  devoured  a  number  of 
sheep.  At  last  the  shepherd  discovered  the  trick  and  caught  the 
marauder.  Fastening  a  rope  round  his  neck,  he  strung  him  up  to  a 
tree  that  stood  hard  by.  Some  of  the  shepherd's  friends,  happening 
to  pass  that  way,  saw  what  he  was  about,  and  said,  with  great  sur- 
prise: — "How  is  this,  brother,  do  you  hang  sheep?"  "No," 
replied  the  shepherd,  *'but  I  hang  a  wolf  whenever  I  catch  him, 
though  he  be  in  sheep's  clothmg."  Then  he  showed  them  their 
mistake,  and  they  agreed  that  the  punishment  was  just. 

After  this  Httle  fable  has  been  read  and  fully  explained,  the 
following  outline  may  be  written  : — 

The  wolfs  disguise  and  depredations.  Discovery  of  the  trick.  Punish- 
ment. Surprise  of  the  passers-by.  The  shepherd's  explanation. 
Approval  of  the  sentence. 

in  order  to  make  children  familiar  with  this  very  elementary 


COMPOSITION.  223 


form  of  composition,  it  is  well  to  prepare  a  number  of  outline 
stories  (written  in  bold  characters)  which  can  be  placed  in 
turn  before  the  class,  in  order  that,  from  this  framework,  they 
:may  work  out  suitable  sub-divisions. 

Before  they  can  do  this  without  assistance,  they  will  re- 
quire some  oral  practice  in  filling  up  these  sub-divisions  in 
their  own  words.  For  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  re- 
production of  a  story  is  not  intended  to  be  a  mere  tax  upon 
the  memory.  On  the  contrary,  the  lesson  only  fulfils  its 
purpose  when  the  scholars  shew,  by  their  choice  of  a  different 
phraseology,  that  they  have  grasped  the  sense  of  the  original. 

Long  Sentences  not  to  be  Permitted  at  First. 

— Children  have  a  natural  tendency  to  run  on  through  great 
part  of  a  page  without  a  full  stop — repeating  continually  the 
words — "and,"  "so,"  or  "then."  This  bad  habit  must  be 
•checked,  or,  better  still,  provided  against.  One  way  of  doing 
:so,  is  by  training  them  to  write  a  great  variety  of  short 
sentences  —  with  their  proper  capitals  and  punctuation. 
-Another  expedient  is  to  require  them  to  ask  and  answer 
questions  in  writing.  This  forces  them  to  break  up  the 
sentences  into  short  phrases. 

Consecutive  Sentences  must  also  be  formed, — If 

it  is  necessary  with  very  young  pupils  to  insist  on  short, 
terse  sentences,  it  is  equally  needful  to  teach  those 
a  little  older  how  to  write  consecutively — using  the  proper 
•connectives.  To  continue  to  insert  a  full  stop  and  a  capital 
after  every  six  or  seven  v/ords,  would  result  in  the  formation 
of  a  childish,  jerky  style.  Such  a  production  as  the  following 
would  be  very  objectionable  : — 

A  crow  was  very  thirsty.  He  flew  to  a  pitcher.  He  found  water  in  it. 
But  it  was  very  near  the  bottom.  He  stooped  and  strained.  He  could 
not  reach  it.  Next  he  tried  to  overturn  the  pitcher.  He  was  not 
strong  enough  for  this.  Some  pebbles  were  near  the  place.  He  cast 
them  into  the  pitcher.  The  water  was  slowly  raised  to  the  brim.  He 
satisfied  his  thirst. 


224  COMPOSITION. 


If  this  is  read  to  the  children,  they  will  perceive  its  crude^ 
unpleasant  sound  for  themselves.  They  must  be  taught  that 
it  can  be  remedied  by  joining  two  or  more  sentences  together 
by  the  help  of  conjunctions,  etc.  This  is  also  a  good  oppor- 
tunity of  shewing  them  the  usefulness  of  participial  phrases- 
Let  them  hear  the  same  fable  in  its  amended  form  : — 

A  crow  that  was  dying  of  thirst,  flew  eagerly  to  a  pitcher  which  he  haJ 
perceived  from  a  distance.  When  he  came,  he  found  water  in  it 
indeed,  but  so  near  the  bottom,  that,  with  all  his  stooping  and 
straining,  he  was  not  able  to  reach  it.  Then  he  tried  to  overturn  the 
pitcher  that,  at  least,  he  might  be  able  to  get  a  little  of  the  water  j 
but  his  strength  was  not  equal  to  this.  At  length,  seeing  some- 
pebbles  near  the  place,  he  cast  them  one  by  one  into  the  pitcher- 
Thus  by  degrees  he  raised  the  water  up  to  the  very  brim,  and  satis- 
fied his  thirst. 

The  above  is  only  given  as  a  sample.  Teachers  will  find  it 
repay  them  to  treat  several  short  stories  in  the  same  manner- 


Letters. 

Letter-writing  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of 
composition — entering,  as  it  does,  so  largely  into  the  daily^ 
business  of  life.  To  be  able  to  write  a  good  letter  will 
be  of  more  practical  value  to  our  scholars,  than  almost 
anything  they  learn  while  at  school.  Furthermore,  the 
ability  to  do  this,  is  of  real  present  service  to  their  parents, 
who,  whatever  their  station  in  life  may  be,  highly  esteem 
the  school  that  early  puts  such  a  power  into  their  children's, 
hands.  The  teacher  who  is  possessed  of  tact  and  wisdom,, 
will  take  care  that  well-written  letters  on  subjects  of  general 
interest  are  often  taken  home  by  the  children. 

In  the  upper  Standards,  boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  to 
write  good  business  letters,  to  draw  up  advertisements,  to  sign 
receipts,  and  to  fill  up  invoices  and  other  forms. 

They  should  have  some  practice  in  this  branch  of  com- 
position before  they  enter  the  senior  classes.    Once  or  twice  a 


COMPOSITION.  225 


week — from  the  second  or  third  standard  upwards — a  short 
note  or  letter  should  be  written.  This  may  be  sometimes 
transcribed,  or  copied ;  at  others,  written  from  dictation ;  and, 
from  time  to  time,  a  lesson  on  composing  a  simple  letter 
should  be  given  on  the  blackboard. 

At  this  lesson,  the  teacher  should  enter  into  all  needful 
particulars — shewing  precisely  the  proper  place  for  the  date 
and  address,  where  to  commence  the  letter  itself,  and  the 
various  ways  in  which  it  is  customary  to  begin  and  conclude. 

However  simple  the  subject-matter  may  be,  the  writer 
should  be  trained  to  arrange  it  properly.  If  this  is  done  as  a 
matter  of  course,  from  the  very  beginning,  it  will  strike  at  the 
root  of  that  habit  of  rambling,  pointless  letter-writing  which  is 
so  common. 

Different  kinds  of  Letters. — Letters  vary  greatly  in 
their  subject-matter  and  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
written  : — 

I  Public  Letters,  or  communications  to  the  editors  of 
newspapers  and  periodicals.  —  These  sometimes  give  an 
account  of  what  is  happening  at  the  place  from  which  they 
are  written  ;  but,  more  often,  they  are  on  topics  of  common 
interest — as  commerce,  agriculture,  education,  and  politics. 
Such  correspondence  now  forms  a  prominent  feature  of  all 
leading  newspapers.  It  does  not  call  for  much  depth  or 
erudition,  but  rather  for  a  brilliant,  striking  mode  of  expression. 
The  admixture,  where  suitable,  of  a  little  humour,  is  always 
desirable.  As  the  space  allowed  is  limited,  newspaper  letters 
ought  to  be  concisely  written,  and  the  temptation  to  digress 
from  the  subject  resisted. 

Of  late  years,  even  school-boys  have  sometimes  composed 
public  letters ;  and,  when  these  have  been  written  in  an 
original  style,  and  have  treated  of  matters  concerning  which 
young  people  are  entitled  to  express  an  opinion,  they  have 
occasionally  appeared  in  print. 

Q 


226  COMPOSITION. 


II.  Business  Letters.  —  For  these,  a  business-like 
clearness  is  all-iniportant.  They  should  be  brief,  and  keep 
strictly  to  the  matter  in  hand. 

III.  Letters  of  Friendship. — This  is  the  most  usual 
kind  of  correspondence — particularly  for  young  people,  who 
are  continually  called  upon  to  write  such  letters— not  only 
on  their  own  account,  but  for  their  parents — to  relations, 
friends,  or  employers,  on  one  subject  or  another. 

IV.  Letters    written    on    special    occasions.  — 

Letters  condoling  with  friends  in  sorrow,  or  congratu- 
lating them  upon  some  happy  event,  are  often  called  for. 
Stiffness  must  be  avoided  here,  and  anything  that  sounds 
artificial.     Such  letters  should  be  sincere,  brief,  and  natural. 

V.  Notes. — Besides  the  above,  there  are  short  notes 
which,  in  every  class  of  life,  have  to  be  frequently  written ;  notes 
of  invitation,  excuse,  apology,  or  request.  It  is  essential  that 
children  should  have  practice  in  this  kind  of  correspondence, 
as  it  often  proves  more  of  a  difficulty  to  the  inexperienced 
than  the  composition  of  a  long  formal  letter.  For  instance, 
it  is  very  usual  to  write  notes  in  the  third  person  ;  but  what 
a  common  error  it  is  to  begin  a  note  in  the  third  person,  and 
then  slip  inadvertently  into  using  the  first  or  second;  e.g.: — 
*'  Mrs.  Barton  presents  her  compliments  to  Miss  Martin  and 
ho^es  you  will  excuse  her,  etc." 

Practical  Hints  for  Teaching  Le tter- Writing. — 

It  may  be  useful  here  to  give  a  few  suggestions  as  to  the 
best  way  of  teaching  children  how  to  conduct  such  corres- 
pondence as  is  hkely  to  fall  to  their  share : — 

The  paper  must,  at  first,  be  ruled.  Two  pencil  lines  should 
likewise  be  traced  parallel  with  the  left-hand  edge,  one  nearly 
an  inch,  the  other  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  margin.  All 
paragraphs  must  be  commenced  on  the  latter,  and  other 
lines  on  the  former. 


COMPOSITION. 


227 


A  letter  includes — (i)  the  address  of  the  writer,  and  the 
■date ;  (2)  the  complimentary  beginning ;  (3)  the  body  of  the 
letter ;  (4)  the  complimentary  ending  and  signature.  Post-' 
scripts  are  short  sentences  added  to  the  letter  after  the 
signature.  It  is  better  to  avoid  them  by  remembering  all  that 
.has  to  be  written  before  signing  the  name. 

'  Neatness. — The  appearance  of  a  letter  is  important, 
-especially  when  addressed  to  a  stranger.  The  following 
directions  are  good : —  Begin  about  one-fourth  from  the 
top  of  the  page.  Write  straight.  Leave  a  margin  at  the 
bottom  of  the  paper,  as  well  as  at  the  left-hand  side.  Begin 
a  fresh  paragraph  with  each  fresh  subject.  Leave  plenty  of 
room  for  the  signature,  and  so  manage  that  your  letter  shall 
not  end  at  the  very  top  of  a  page.  Attend  to  punctuation. 
Never  divide  a /'^o/>^r  7iame,  and  if  you  are  obliged  to  divide 
•other  words,  be  careful  to  syllabify  properly. 

How  to  Begin  and  End. — There  are  certain  recognised 
w^ays  of  addressing  correspondents  which  all  ought  to  know. 
The  usual  mode  of  beginning  a  letter  to  a  superior,  or  a 
.stranger,  is,  "  Sir,"  "  Madam,"  "  Dear  Sir,"  *'  Dear  Madam." 
If  the  letter  is  to  an  acquaintance,  "  Dear "  or   '*  My  dear 

Mr. "  would  be  right ;  if  to  an  intimate  friend,  the  christian 

name  will  naturally  be  used.  (The  addition  of  "My"  imphes 
greater  intimacy.; 

The  ending  of  a  letter  demands  no  less  care.  To  superiors 
we  should  subscribe  ourselves,  "I  beg  to  remain,"  or  "I  have 
the  honour  to  remain,  yours  respectfully;"  10  ordinary  busi- 
ness correspondents  and  mere  acquaintances,  "Yours  faith- 
fully," or  "Yours  truly,"  to  intimate  friends  and  relations, 
"Believe  me,  yours  affectionately,"  or  "Your  affectionate 
child,  brother,"  etc. 

Remembrance  of  Friends. — It  is  the  custom  in  letters 
-of  friendship  to  send  courteous   and   affectionate  messages 


228  COMPOSITION. 


to  other  members  of  the  family,  such  as — "  Please  remember 

me  kindly  to  Mrs. and  your  daughter  "  ;   or  in  the  case 

of  relations — "  Give  my  love,"  etc. 

General  Style. — Let  children  be  informed  that,  the  tone 
of  a  letter  must  depend  upon  the  degree  of  intimacy  between 
the  correspondents :  To  superiors  it  ought  to  be  respectful ;  to 
inferiors  courteous ;  to  relations  and  near  friends  affectionate ;. 
and  it  will  be  grave  or  gay  according  to  circumstances. 

Among  other  points  it  is  well  to  warn  our  pupils  that  what 
we  write  remains.  The  receiver  of  a  letter  may  possibly  keep 
it,  to  use  against  the  writer  at  a  future  time.  If,  therefore,  it 
is  wise  to  think  before  one  speaks,  it  is  even  more  needful 
to  think  before  one  writes.  Never  should  anything  of  a. 
slanderous  or  ill-natured  character  be  committed  to  paper. 
Many  a  correspondent  has  paid  dearly  for  having  allowed 
his  pen  this  dangerous  liberty,  for  he  has  been  sued  for  libel,, 
and  heavily  fined. 

An  egotistic  style  is  also  to  be  deprecated.  A  person  wha 
fills  his  letter  with  accounts  of  his  own  doings  and  opinions 
shows  very  bad  taste.  A  friend  doubtless  expects  some 
personal  intelligence,  but  other  information  should  be  supplied 
as  well. 

Directing  the  Envelope, — This  likewise  requires  to  be 
practised  by  the  children,  under  supervision.  Nothing  more 
surely  betrays  want  of  education,  than  the  manner  in  which 
the  address  is  often  put — cramped  up  into  one  corner,  or  else 
sprawling  awkwardly  all  over  the  envelope,  ill-spelt  and  worse 
written.  The  thousands  of  letters  which  are  destroyed  every 
year  because  even  a  post-office  clerk  cannot  decipher  the 
direction,  shews  that  this  matter  needs  more  attention  than 
it  at  present  receives. 

Teachers  will  do  well  to  write  on  the  blackboard  sketches 
of  different  kinds  of  letters.  We  append  the  following 
specimen : — 


COMPOSITION.  229 


Outline  of  Letter  applying  for  Situation. 

Subject. — The   writer   is  seeking  a  situation  as  clerk,  and  answers  an 
advertisement. 

Letter:  — 

(a)  Address. 

{b)  Date. 

{c)  Complimentary  beginning. 

(^)  States  in  what  paper  he  has  seen  the  advertisement. 

{e)  States  his  own  qualifications  for  the  post,  especially  the  amount  of 

experience  he  has  had. 
if)  Offers  to  supply  references  to  former  employers  and  also  to  the 

clergyman  whose  church  he  attends. 
{g)  Formal  ending. 
iji)  Signature. 
(?)  Superscription. — (The  name  and  address  of  the  person  to  whom 

the  letter  is  written,  should  always  be  added  to  a  business  letter). 


Descriptive  Writing  in  the  Higher  Standards. — 

Description  forms  an  important  part  of  composition  at  every 
stage.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  to  use  words  adapted 
to  the  nature  of  the  objects  described.  Material  objects, 
-scenery f  and  persons,  are  subjects  which  most  commonly  call 
for  description.  Such  heads  as  the  following  will  be  found 
useful ;  the  writer  must  select  from  them  those  which  appear 
anost  suited  to  his  purpose  : — 

Jffiaterial  Objects — 

(i)  The  mode  in  which  the  writer  became  acquainted  with  the  object  in 
question,  or  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  last  seen  by  him. 

(2)  The  date  of  its  first  discovery,  or  invention  ;  together  with  any  histori- 
cal facts  or  traditions  connected  therewith. 

(3)  By  whom,  and  of  what  made. 

(4)  Form,  size,  colour,  and  ordinary  appearance ;  as  viewed  in  itself,  and 

also  as  compared  with  similar  objects. 

(5)  The  purpose  for  which  it  was  originally  made  (or  procured). 

(6)  Its  present  uses  to  mankind  in  general,  or  to  the  writer  in  particular. 
"(7)   Writer's  opinion  about  it. 


230  COMPOSITION'. 


Scenery— 

(i)  The  situation— country,  place,  neighbourhood.     T/ie  time  of  day — 
whether  at  dawn,  noon,  evening,  or  night. 

(2)  The  season  of  the  year,  the  weather,  etc. 

(3)  Natural  features  of  the  scene  ;  level  or  mountainous,  on  the  coast  or 

inland,  embracing  streams,  woods,  meadows. 

(4)  Additions  made  by  art — by  cultivation,  buildings,  and  productions  of 

human  industry. 

(5)  /«/id!<^//a«/j,  or  other  living  creatures  ;  e.g.y  cattle,  birds,  horses,  deer. 

(6)  Sounds — plash   of  waves,  noise  of  wind,  rain,  or  thunder,  rustling: 

leaves,  lowing  cows,  cries  of  children,  whirr  of  machinery. 

(7)  Comparison  with  some  other  scene  or  scenes. 

(8)  Any  historical  details. 

(9)  Feelings  awakened  in   the   writer's   mind— of  admiration,  wonder,. 

delight,  or  repulsion. 

Persons— 

(i)  Age  (to  which  of  the  seven  ages  of  man  the  person  described  seems  tcv 
belong). 

(2)  General  appearance  :  whether  tall  or  short,  thin,  etc.,  and  whether 

there  is  any  marked  peculiarity,  such  as  great  beauty  or  deformity, 

(3)  Position  in  life,  dress,  or  occupation. 

(4)  Manners  :  gracious,  haughty,  awkward,  agreeable  or  the  reverse. 

(5)  Mode  of  speech. 

(6)  Character,  abilities,  virtues,  vices  or  faults,  acquirements,  accomplish- 

ments. 


Essay   Writing. 

Between  the  re-production  of  a  story  in  Standard  V.,  and 
the  composing  of  an  essay  in  Standards  VI.  and  VII.,  there 
is  an  immense  stride.  The  term  "essay"  hterally  signifies- 
an  attempt^  and  is  generally  applied  to  literary  productions. 
in  which  the  writer  briefly  sets  forth  his  ideas  on  a  given, 
topic.  The  sixth-standard  scholar  is  expected,  at  the  ex- 
amination, to  furnish  some  creation  of  his  own  brain — no- 
jnaterial  being  supplied  for  the  purpose.     It  must  be  acknow- 


COMPOSITION.  -231 


ledged  that  this  is  a  formidable  test,  and  the  teacher  will 
be  disappointed  who  expects  a  high  standard  of  excellence. 
Still,  if  good  previous  training  has  been  given,  children  will 
often  express  themselves  with  considerable  force  and  freshness. 

Subjects  for  Essays. — There  is  real  difficulty  in  finding 
subjects  suitable  for  such  youthful  essayists.  Ancient  philo- 
sophers warn  us — "  Not  to  search  in  any  mind  for  that  which 
it  does  not  contain.""  Now,  the  mind  of  a  child  of  twelve 
or  thirteen  contains  very  little  encyclopaedic  knowledge,  and 
to  expect  him  to  be  ready  to  give  his  notions  impromptu  upon 
a  number  of  miscellaneous  matters,  or  to  compose  a  theme 
upon  some  abstract  question,  would  be  ridiculous.  ■ 

If  a  child's  essay-writing  is  to  have  any  satisfactory 
result,  it  must  refer  to  some  subject  with  which  he  is 
not  only  familiar,  but  upon  which  he  is  capable  of  forming 
an  opinion.  The  object  of  composition  is  not  to  furnish 
fresh  ideas,  but  to  test  the  power  of  putting  into  words  those 
already  possessed. 

It  is  well  to  begin  by  getting  the  children  to  describe  any 
incident  that  has  happened  within  their  range  of  observation, 
as — a  visit  to  relations ;  a  severe  thunderstorm  ;  a  day  at 
school ;  Christmas  holidays ;  the  street  they  live  in ;  or  a 
cricket  match. 

A  further  step  would  be  a  written  account  of  some  public 
event,  about  which  all  the  world  was  speaking.  But  here  the 
teacher  would  have  first  to  ascertain,  by  means  of  a  class-talk, 
the  extent  of  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  circumstances,  and 
secondly  to  supply  what  was  lacking.  Supposing  the  subject 
were  a  shipwreck,  royal  wedding,  public  funeral,  or  similar 
incident,  an  illustrated  paper  should  be  provided. 

Oth.er  liGSSons  Utilised. — The  principal  material  for 
essays  will  obviously  be  furnished  by  the  oral  lessons  given  in 
the  school ;  and  such  compositions  may,  with  advantage,  be 
written  by  the  elder  pupils  at  home.     A  set  of  object  lessons, 


232  COMPOSITION. 


embracing  rather  a  wide  range,  may  well  be  given  for  the 
express  purpose.  By  this  means,  a  child  in  the  higher 
standards  will  gain  a  fair  idea  of  what  is  passing  in  the  world 
• — in  the  way  of  explorations,  scientific  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries, and  commercial  enterprise. 

A  series  of  humanity  lessons  should  always  form  part  of  the 
course.  If  principles  of  mercy  and  justice  towards  the  lower 
creation  are  to  prevail,  they  must  be  instilled  in  the  school- 
room. Instruction  on  the  treatment  of  horses,  dogs,  cats, 
and  other  domestic  pets  would  be  popular  with  the  children, 
and  the  subject  being  well  within  their  grasp,  and  appealing 
to  their  better  and  deeper  feelings,  good  fruit — in  the  shape  of 
some  spirited  compositions — might  reasonably  be  expected. 

Again,  teachers  will  find  excellent  matter  for  more  ambitious 
attempts  at  essay-writing  in  descriptions  of  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, mining,  farming,  and  building  operations.  Charities — 
such  as  Hospitals,  Orphan  Asylums,  Missionary  Associations, 
Drinking  Troughs  and  Fountains,  Life-boat  Societies,  Homes 
for  Lost  Dogs — and  many  others  that  have  for  their  object  the 
protection  of  the  helpless,  may  also  be  turned  to  good  account 
for  the  purpose. 

If  a  list  of  the  Object  lessons  and  Science  lessons  given 
during  the  year  were  presented  to  H.M.  Inspector  at  an 
Examination,  he  would  often  prefer  to  select  the  subjects  for 
composition  from  these. 

Geography  and  History  Fertile  Subjects. — Varied 
and  abundant  matter  for  descriptive  writing  is  supplied  by 
the  geography  lesson ;  the  material  afforded  by  the  natural 
features,  habitations,  people,  customs,  cities,  food,  clothing, 
animals,  vegetation,  belonging  to  different  countries — is 
literally  inexhaustible. 

Then  how  prolific  in  subjects  of  interest  is  history !  Will 
it  not  cement  in  the  children's  memory  the  great  events  of 
the  world,  if  they  are  called  upon  to  repeat  the  record  in  their 
own  words  ?     What  scope  may  it  not  afford  for  their  ingenuity. 


COMPOSITION.  233 


in  reproducing  interesting  stories  from  ancient  and  rriodern 
writ,  or  describing  a  pictured  representation  of  some  striking 
incident ! 

Definitions. — As  facility  in  even  elementary  composition 
includes  aptitude  in  giving  correct  and  clear  definitions,  it  is 
desirable  to  have  a  few  simple  and  general  rules  on  the 
subject,  and  the  scholars  should  be  occasionally  exercised  in 
•defining  both  abstract  and  concrete  terms. 

They  should  also  be  shown  in  what  respects  a  definition 
differs  from  a  meaning  and  a  description.  Let  the  example 
be  such  a  well-known  word  as  quadruped.  Its  meaning  is 
•^'four-footed."  Its  definition  would  be  "An  animal  having 
four  feet."  The  description  would  require  details  as  to  size, 
form,  colour,  and  general  structure,  to  be  added.  It  does  not 
follow,  of  course,  that  every  term  admits  of  all  three  processes 
being  applied  to  it. 

The  chief  rules  for  giving  appropriate  definitions  are  the 
'.following : — 

(1)  A  definition  always  requires  more  than  one  word  to  express  it.     To 

explain  **  courage "  by  the  single  word  "bravery  "  would  be  no  true 
definition. 

(2)  A  word  or  term  is  not  defined  by  telling  what  it  is  noL    Thus,  *'  truth" 

would  not  be  defined  by  saying  that  it  is  not  falsehood. 

<3)  A  definition  should  not  include  words  derived  from  the  term  to  be 
defined.  To  define  "temperance  "  as  "  the  virtue  of  being  temperate 
in  eating  and  drinking,"  would  violate  this  rule. 

(4)  A  definition  must  be  neither  too  wide  nor  too  limited.  "An  animal 
that  eats  grass,"  would  be  too  wide  a  definition  of  "horse,"  because 
there  are  other  animals  that  eat  grass.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
following  definition  is  too  narrozu,  e.g. — "An  equilateral  triangle  has 
three  equal  straight  lines,"  because  there  are  equilateral  triangles 
which  have  three  equal  curved  lines. 

-A  few  terms  are  subjoined  for  practice  in  definitions: — 
Bird.  Lemon.  Forest.  Tree. 

Ink.  Park.  Food.  Light. 

Reptile.  Shark.  Sun.  Gallon. 

Clock. 


234 

COMPOSITION. 

Industry. 

Pride. 

Perseverance. 

Frugality. 

Truth. 

Justice. 

Envy. 
Pity. 

War. 
Poverty. 

Architecture. 
Printing. 

Writing. 
Theology. 

Chemistry. 

Sculpture. 

Society. 
Meadow. 
Language. 
Superintendent. 

Machine. 
Helm.   • 
Gunpowder. 
Plough. 

Statesman. 
Orphan. 
Market. 
Magistrate. 

Merchant. 

Wit. 

Insurrection. 

Subjects  for  Composition  commonly  given. — A 

list  is  appended  of  subjects  which  have  been  given  frequently 
at  examinations.  Many  of  them  are  remarkably  suitable^, 
and  might  be  used  with  advantage  year  after  year.  Others — 
such  as  those  on  familiar  proverbs — cannot  be  recommended^ 
as  the  material  they  afford  is  of  too  scanty  a  character.  We. 
may  observe,  in  passing,  that  those  Inspectors  who  give  a 
choice  of  six  or  more  subjects  seem  to  deal  the  most  fairly  by- 
the  children.  If  but  one  topic  is  allowed,  it  may  happen  that; 
half  the  class  are  profoundly  in  the  dark  as  to  what  it  even. 
means.  A  great  obstacle  to  the  production  of  creditable  essays. 
on  such  occasions  is  the  inadequate  time  allowed  for  writing; 
them. 


Subjects  given  at  School  Inspections, 


A  Railway  Station. 

A  Sea  Voyage.   • 

Ships.  ' 

Journey  through  a  Desert. 

The  Whale  Fishery. 

The  Steam-engine. 

A  Shipwreck. 

The  Post-office. 

A  Joiner's  Shop 

Description  of  a  House. 

,,      .        „      School., 

,,  ,,      Church. 

„  .,      Farm-yard. 

,,  ,,      School-treat. 


How  to  help  Mother. 

Taking  care  of  Baby. 

Games. 

Story  of  your  Recitation. 

Life  of  any  Great  Man. 

A  Day  in  your  Life. 

Town  and  Country. 

Harvest  Time. 

Dogs. 

Elephants. 

Cruelty  to  Animals. 

Kindness  to  Animals. 

Bees. 

Fish. 


COMPOSITION. 


235 


The  School  Museum. 
History  of  a  pair  of  Boots. 

,,  a  Coat. 

,,  an  Umbrella. 

,,  a  Loaf  of  Bread. 

Butter 

Foreign  articles  of  Food. 
"  Half  a  loaf  is   better  than   no 
bread." 


Coal. 
Sugar. 

Birds'  Nests. 
Slates. 
Salt. 

**  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 
**  Constant  dripping  wears  away- 
the  hardest  stone." 


In  the  next  place,  we  give  a  list  of  subjects  which  are  not,. 
we  believe,  quite  so  hackneyed  as  those  above.  They  will  be- 
found  to  afford  scope  for  thought  and  intelligence,  and  to- 
be  fairly  within  the  capacity  of  the  juvenile  writers  who  have: 
to  be  considered. 


The  influence  of  kind  words. 

Why  we  should  treat  the  aged  with 
respect. 

Flowers  (not  considered  botanic- 
ally). 

How  to  succeed  in  business. 

Mirrors. 

A  Rainbow. 

Old  clothes. 

New  clothes. 

Nothing  is  lost. 

Money  either  a  blessing  or  a  curse. 

Our  present  condition  compared 
with  that  of  the  Ancient  Bri- 
tons. 

Ditto — with  England  as  it  was  a 
hundred  years  ago. 

Music. 

"What  I  can  do  when  mother  is  ill. 

Common  things. 

Dairy  produce. 

W^hy  unselfish  people  are  happy. 

W^hat  kind  actions  a  boy  can  per- 
form. 

A  Miser. 

A  Spendthrift. 


Presence  of  mind  in  danger. 

The  cowardice  of  crime. 

Wasting  time. 

Harness  of  a  horse. 

Care  of  a  pet  bird. 

A  town  in  the  early  morning.. 

The  country        ,,  ,, 

Trifles. 

Good  manners  at  home. 

Progress  in  manufactures. 

Bad  companions. 

Treatment  of  a  horse — 

(i)  In  the  stable. 

(2)  As  a  beast  of  burden,  or 
draught. 
What  to  do  in  a  shipwreck. 
What  to  do  in  a  burning  house, 
Advantages  of  a  gardener's  life. 

,,         ,,     clerk's  life. 

,,         „     bookseller's  life. 

,.         ,,     letter  carrier's  life. 

„         ,,     roilway  porter's  life. 
Window  gardening. 
Gardening  for  the  seasons. 
The  Mohammedan  Religion. 
Bhuddist  Religion. 


236  COMPOSITION. 


Robinson  Crusoe.  Pompeii. 

Some  great  inventors.  The  Pyramids. 

Absent  friends.  A  Diamond  Mine. 
Patriotism. 

Having  suggested  subject-matter,  we  will  now  offer  some 
•advice  on  the  difficult  task  of  preparing  children  to  write 
an  essay. 

Before  the  Essay, — The  preliminaries  of  an  exercise  in 
•composition  constitute  its  most  important  feature. 

First,  there  must  be  the  careful  ascertaining  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  that  the  class  know  and  understand  what  they  are 
:going  to  write  about.  Unless  this  knowledge  is  clearly 
grasped,  not  even  a  moderately  good  composition  can  be 
•expected. 

Secondly,  the  pupils  must  have  learned  how  to  spell,  to  punc- 
tuate, and  to  express  themselves  without  grammatical  errors. 
Anyone  who  has  not  mastered  these  elements  had  better  be 
•sent  to  do  so  in  a  lower  standard,  as  he  would  be  a  sad  drag 
upon  the  rest  of  the  class. 

Thirdly,  there  must  be  correct  ordering  of  ideas.  The 
•commonest  fault  in  essay  writing  is  that  of  confused  and  hap- 
liazard  arrangement.  One  head  of  the  subject  is  taken  up, 
•and  dropped  almost  directly ;  another  is  then  touched  upon — 
perhaps  a  third — after  which  there  is  a  return  to  the  first ; 
lastly,  the  beginning  and  end  are  dovetailed  in,  and  the  main 
part  missed  out  altogether. 

Accordingly,  let  this  golden  rule  be  unfailingly  observed  by 
the  scholars  : — Prepare  mi  analysis  of  your  subject  before  you 
■begin. 

Speaking  generally,  every  essay  must  have  a  beginning,  a 
middle,  and  an  end  ;  and  the  middle,  or  body  of  the  essay, 
:nearly  always  requires  division  and  subdivision.  The 
beginning  must  be  so  clearly  expressed  that  it  needs  no 
statement  to  make  it  plain,  neither  must  it  be  out  of 
proportion  to  the  length  of  the  whole.     Nor  must  an  essay 


COMPOSITION.  237 


end  abruptly,  or  convey  the  idea  that  it  is  unfinished.  Much\ 
care  should  be  bestowed  on  the  commencement  and  conclusion, 
so  that  the  reader  may  both  begin  and  leave  off  with  a. 
favourable  impression, 

Keflection  Needed. — Having  stated  what  should  con* 
stitute  the  main  divisions  of  a  child's  essay,  let  it  be  again' 
insisted  upon,  that  it  is  indispensable  to  pause  and  reflect,, 
before  dividing  up  the  subject  in  some  convenient  fashion. 
Those  who  rush  at  a  composition,  without  thought  or  previous . 
plan,  are  tolerably  sure  to  flounder  about  in  an  aimless  kind' 
of  way,  and  will  really  seem  far  more  ignorant  than  is  actually 
the  case. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  teacher  should,  for  some 
considerable  time,  suggest  the  heads,  and  then  help  the 
pupils  to  work  out  subdivisions  and  details.  Teachers  who 
persevere  in  this,  vigorously  and  patiently,  will  be  much, 
encouraged  by  the  readiness  and  skill  some  children  will  begin 
to  exhibit,  after  a  few  months  of  practice. 

Outlines  of  Essays  Given  Below. — With  a  view  to 
aid  teachers  in  carrying  out  this  advice,  a  few  specimen 
outlines  are  appended,  in  which  the  divisions  are  distinctly 
marked.  Following  the  plan  there  indicated,  teachers  will  find 
no  difficulty  in  sketching  out,  on  the  same  lines,  any  other 
subjects  that  may  seem  appropriate. 

How  to  be  Used. — When  using  sketched-out  essays  for 
blackboard  exercises,  the  teacher  should  first  write  down  the 
main  divisions  (those  printed  in  heavy  type),  leaving  a  good 
space  between  each.  Next,  the  subordinate  ideas  must  be 
filled  in — those  marked  (a)  (b),  etc.,  the  class  being  required 
to  supply  the  material,  so  far  as  they  can. 

This  will  be  as  much  as  the  children  will  be  able  to  manage 
for  some  time.  But,  so  soon  as  they  find  outline- writing  easy, 
the  teacher  can  go  on  to  build  up  (always  with  their  help).. 


238  COMPOSITION. 


"aiiore  of  a  finished  essay.  The  headings  will,  of  course,  be 
strictly  adhered  to.  But  the  facts  will  be  woven  together  and 
fuller  information  added,  so  as  to  make  the  exercise  read 
smoothly  and  pleasantly. 

Children's   Ability  to   Work    Alone    Tested. — 

'When  the  school  year  is  well  advanced,  the  teacher  should, 
.about  once  a  week,  require  Standards  VI.  and  VII.  to  produce 
•a  composition,  unaided.  The  pupils  must  be  reminded  of  the 
necessary  preliminaries ;  and  if  even  several  minutes  are  spent 
:in  these,  it  will  not  be  too  long ;  for  it  has  been  truly  said — 

*'The  first,  second,  and  third  precept  which  should  be  enjoined  upon  an 

essayist  is — think,  think,  THINK.     You  should  worry  your  subject 

as  a  dog  does  a  bone.     You  should  walk  round  it  and  attack  it  from 

all  sides.     You  should  break  it  in  pieces  and  scrutinise  it  carefully." 

When  the  child  has  jotted  down  on  his  scribbling  paper  all 

•the  facts  that  his  memory  can  furnish,  he  must  make  up  his 

jnind  how  he  will  arrange  them.      It  is  sometimes  best  to 

mark  the  headings  a,  fc,  c.     Then  let  him  take  them  seriatim^ 

.and  work  out  the  details  according  to  the  directions  given 

above. 

The  Conclusion  Often  a  Difficulty. — Children  should 
.be  cautioned  to  decide  how  they  will  end  their  essay  before 
they  begin  to  write.  An  appropriate  anecdote,  an  old  saying 
•or  proverb,  or  some  historical  allusion,  often  constitutes  an 
•  effective  ending.  It  is  well  known  that  grown  men  sometimes 
find  the  conclusion  of  speeches  and  sermons  such  a  difficulty 
that  they  wander  on  and  on,  positively  unable  to  end.  Can 
Ave  wonder,  then,  at  the  difficulty  experienced  by  the  poor  little 
•essay-writers  of  our  primary  schools? 

General  Headings. — It  is  a  solid  and  real  way  of  helping 
juvenile  writers  to  furnish  them  with  good  general  headings 
for  the  various  classes  of  essays.  Many  kinds  of  subjects 
follow  an  almost  unvarying  sequence,  though,  of  course,  this 
is  not  the  case  with  all. 


COMPOSITION.  239 


For  instance,  a  summary  of  the  life  of  some  celebrated 
iinan  usually  falls  more  or  less  under  these  divisions : — 

(a)  Parentage  and  birth  ; 
(i)  Childhood  and  early  life  ; 
{c)  Entrance  on  life-work  or  public  duties ; 

(d)  Condition  of  affairs  vi'hich  brought  him  into  notice  ;  e.£:  : —  ' 

Wilberforce  through  the  Slave  Trade, 
Wellington  through  Napoleon's  Aggressions, 
Joan  ot  Arc  through  the  humiliation  of  her  country ; 
((?)  Principal  events  of  life,  and  descriptive  anecdotes  ; 
(/)  Last  illness  and  death  ; 
(g)  Character  and  qualities. 

Again,  suppose  the  essay  to  be  upon  some  natural  pro- 
duction, it  is  seldom  that  it  would  not  subdivide  much  as 
:follows : — 

{a)  Definition  and  description; 
{l>)  Different  kinds  ; 

(c)  Where  found  ; 

(d)  How  prepared  ; 
{e)  Uses  ; 

(/)  History. 

Should   the   composition   be   upon    some   virtue    such   as 
gratitude,  it  may  be  thus  sketched  out  : — 
(a)  Definition — what  is  gratitude  ? 

{If)  What  has  ever  been  the  universal  opinion  of  this  virtue 
{c)  Causes  of  ingratitude. 
{d)  Examples  of  gratitude— (i)  in  man  ;  (2)  in  animals. 

(e)  Practical  conclusion. 


These  are  but  samples,  and  it  is  not  intended  that  children 
should  be  restricted  to  any  particular  formula.  Great  freedom 
is  allowable  in  this  respect,  for  amid  the  variety  of  existing 
topics,  strict  uniformity  would  be  quite  impracticable. 

Children  Should  be  Encouraged  to  Take  a  Per- 
sonal Interest. — As  the  pupils  gain  aptitude,  all  means 
amust  be  used  to  rouse  their  personal  interest  in  the  work. 


240  COMPOSITION. 


If  the  subjects  selected  for  composition  are  given  out  a  week- 
beforehand,  or  still  better  written  upon  a  wall-slate,  some- 
of  the  children,  at  any  rate,  will  try  to  hunt  up  information 
respecting  the  various  lessons  for  themselves.  Gradually  it. 
might  come  to  be  an  understood  thing  that  the  scholars  ini 
Standards  VI.  and  VII.  should  make  some  private  preparation: 
for  their  composition  exercises.  If  this  is  to  be  the  case, 
however,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  have  access  to  a 
small  cyclopaedia  and  other  works  of  reference. 

Correction  of  Essays. — In  a  large  school  it  is  not 
possible  for  the  master  or  mistress  to  examine  each  com- 
position separately.  Nor  is  this  necessary  except  perhaps 
in  Standards  VI.  and  VII.,  when  pupils  are  approaching 
the  end  of  the  course.  A  great  deal  may  be  done  by  the 
teacher  and  her  assistants  passing  round  and  correcting  as 
they  go.  Then,  some  of  the  cleverer  children  may  be  employed 
to  mark  the  mistakes  in  grammar,  spelling,  and  punctuation. 

The  more  finished  productions  of  the  elder  scholars,  espe- 
cially those  done  as  home-lessons,  should  be  looked  over  by 
some  competent  person,  and  afterwards  a  fair  copy  made 
by  each  pupil  in  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose.  This  will 
probably  be  shown  at  the  examination,  and  every  exercise 
should  be  dated.  Corrections  are  best  made  in  red  ink,  as 
these  are  certain  to  arrest  the  pupil's  attention.  To  save 
time,  mistakes  may  be  marked  by  letters,  the  meaning  of 
which  the  children  have  been  taught  to  understand,  as  : — 
(S)  spelling  faulty ;  (P)  punctuation  requires  attention ;  {G} 
grammatical  mistake ;  (E)  erroneous  statement.  Other  faults 
would  generally  need  to  be  more  fully  noticed. 

It  is  sometimes  customary  to  assign  a  certain  number  of 
marks,  say  from  25  to  50,  to  such  lessons  as  composition,  one 
or  more  marks  being  forfeited  for  each  mistake.  So  important 
is  the  subject  of  essay-writing,  that  it  is  well  to  write  up  each, 
month,  in  order  of  merit,  the  names  of  those  who  distinguish. 
themselves  in  this  branch  of  their  education. 


COMPOSITION.  241 


Keen  Interest  may  be  Excited  by  these 
Methods. — The  system  we  have  tried  to  depict  is  not  only 
to  be  recommended  by  reason  of  the  ease  and  fluency  of  ex- 
pression which  it  will  foster  in  quite  young  children ;  even 
more  valuable  is  the  desire  for  information  which  it  may  be 
the  means  of  creating,  and  the  foundation  it  will  possibly  lay 
for  subsequent  study  and  a  habit  of  research.  When  our 
pupils,  of  their  own  accord,  take  to  searching  the  school 
library,  and  diving  into  books  of  science,  biographical  records, 
dictionaries  and  gazetteers,  in  order  to  add  to  their  store  of 
knowledge,  we  may  have  a  good  hope  that  we  are  really 
educating  them,  not  merely  cramming  their  reluctant  minds 
with  dry  facts  that  will  quickly  pass  away,  leaving  no  impres- 
sion behind. 


OUTLINE     ESSAYS. 

A    MINE. 

I.  Introduction. — A  Mine  is  a  deep  pit,  from  which  minerals  and 

metals  are  dug  out,  mixed  with  earth  and  stones.  It  is  only  those 
who  have  studied  the  art  of  mining,  that  know  where  to  sink  a  mine 
and  how  best  to  work  it, 

II.  Form  of  Mineral  Deposits. 

They  are  found  as — 

(a)   Veins,  or  irregular  strips  (copper,  tin,  gold,  and  silver). 

{b)  BedSf  or  layers  (coal,  salt). 

{c)  Masses,  or  lumps  of  metal  mixed  with  earth. 

III.  Preparation  for  Working  a  Mine. 

{a)  Discovery  of  suitable  spot. 

{b)  Sinking  a  shaft. 

(f)  Digging  out  galleries  and  providing  ventilation.  ' 

{d)  Draining  out  water  and  placing  supports. 

rV.  Procuring  the  Ore. 

{a)  Ascending  and  descending  by  ladders,  lifts,  or  cages. 
{d)  Excavating  the  ore  with  a  pick,  or  blasting  with  powder. 
(c).  Conveying  it  on  trollies. 
{dl  Raising  it  tp;  the  pit's  movit^  by  engines. 
R 


242^  COMPOSITION. 


V.  How  the  Ore  is  Prepared.  ;      ;^-: 

(a)  Broken  by  hammers  and  crushed  by  a  machine.  .    r  .   ,;■■ 

•     {b)  Sifted  and  washed. 
'  '\  Ic)  Smelted. 

VI.  Dangers  of  Mining. 

(<z)  Suffocation  from  foul  air  and  explosion  of  gas, 

{b)  Flooding,  or  falling  of  earth. 

{c)  Falls  from  ladders,  or  machinery  going  wrong. 

VII.  Conclusion. — Mining  has  been  carried  on  from  the  earliest  times, 
but  the  old  mines  were  not  worked  to  a  great  depth.  Great  Britain 
has  been  for  the  last  hundred  years  the  greatest  mining  country  in  the 
world,  yet  very  little  was  done  till  about  forty  years  ago  to  establish 
mining  schools  like  those  of  other  countries.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  technical  schools  everywhere,  probably  further  improve- 
ments will  be  introduced. 


SUCCESS    IN    BUSINESS. 

I.  To  Succeed  in  Business  a  Man  must  have — 

(a)  Integrity — that  by  strict  honesty  and  trustworthiness  he  may  win 

the  confidence  of  all. 
(3)  Industry — without  which  nothing  can  be  achieved. 

(c)  Energy — that  he  may  push  forward  and  not  miss  opportunities. 

[d)  Perseverance — that  he  may  not  be  daunted  by  failure  or  opposi' 

tion. 
{e)  Covttnon  Sense — that  he  may  keep  from  rash  actions. 
(/")  Good  Manners — which  will  enable  him  to  please  his  customers. 

II   He  must  be  Punctual  and  Methodical. 

Compare  the  man  who  is  always  in  time  and  never  in  debt,  with  one 
whose  affairs  are  in  confusion,  who  owes  money,  and  keeps  others 
waiting. 

lU.  He  must  not  be  the  Slave  of  Business. 

(a)  He  must  not  saciHJice  to  it  his  religious  duties,  by  neglecting  wor- 
ship, or  doing  accounts  on  Sunday  : 
(3)  Nor  health,  working  night  and  day,  when  ill  or  exhausted  : 
(f)  Nor  Social  Happiness,  seeing  nothing  of  his  family  and  friends, 
thinking  only  of  money-getting. 

IV.  Conclusion. — The  business  man  who  is  true  and  just  in  all  his 
dealings,  who  is  kind  to  those  that  work  under  him,  gives  away  a 
share  of  his  earnings  in  charity,  and  puts  his  religion  before  his  gains. 


COMPOSITION.  243 

will  be  leading  a  high  and  noble  life,  and  is  sure  to  ho.  truly  suc- 
cessful, though  he  may  die  worth  less  money  than  a  man  who  is  grasping 
and  worldly,  who  takes  unfair  advantage,  and  gives  nothing  to  the 
poor. 


COMMON    THINGS. 
I.  What  are  Common  Things  ?     "  It  is  only  a  comipofi  thing  " 
are  words  expressive  of  contempt,  which  are  often  heard.    Yet  what  are 
the  things  around  us  which  are  most  common?    Our  most  precious 
possessions :  — 

{a)  Sunshine  is  common. 

{b)  Fresh  air  ,,         ,,  ', 

(<:)  Water       ,,         ,, 

{d)  Flowers  are        ,, 

JII. — Contrast   these   precious  Common   Things  with  what 
Science  or  Art  can  Supply : — 

[a)  Sunshine  with  artificial  light. 
(/')  Water  with  any  other  liquid. 

(0  Flowers  wiih  jewels.  .      .  ' 

They  are  easy  to  be  had  ;  let  us  feel  thankful  to  our  Heavenly 
Father  for  putting  His  best  gifts  within  the  reach  of  all.  Let  us 
try  to  see  beauty  and  convenience  in  the  things  that  lie  around  our 
daily  path,  and  then  we  shall  honour,  not  despise — '■^Comvion 
Things.'" 

311.  Value  of  Common  Things  Compared  with  Bare  Ones. 

(fl)  Iron  is  comtnon  ;  gold  rare.     Which  could  we  best  do  without  ? 
[Jb)   Glass  common ;  diamonds  rare.  ,,  ,,  ,, 

(f )  Cotton  common  ;  silk  rare.     Which  most  useful  ? 
{d)  Bread  common;  rich  food  rare.     Would  we  exchange  the  one 
for  the  other  ? 

NOTHING    IS    LOST. 

I.  Economy  of  Nature.— Throughout  the  three  Kingdoms  of  Nature, 

not  the  least  particle  is  ever  lost.    All  that  seems  to  pass  away  serves 
some  use  again. 

II.  Instances  of  Economy  in  Nature. 

{a)  The  Falling  Leaf  emichcs  the  ground,  and  makes  it  more  fruitful. 
{b)  The  Vegetation  of  Ancient  Daj/s  is  now  dug  up  in  the  shape  of 

coal. 
(c)  The  Vapours  that  rise  from  the  earth,  form  the  clouds,  and  come 

down  in  fertilising  showers. 


244  COMPOSITION. 


III.  Science  teaches  the  same  Lesson.— Nothing  that  we  have^ 
can  be  so  spoilt  and  destroyed  that  it  cannot  be  gathered  up  again' 
for  use,  e.g.  : — 
{a)  Rags,  no  matter  how  torn  or  soiled,  go  to  the  paper  mill. 
{b)  Bones,  from  which  a  dog  would  turn,  are  made  into  buttons- 

and  knife-handles. 
{c)  Refuse  Fat  helps  to  make  soap. 

{d)  Old  Woollen  Fibre  is   converted   into  shoddy,  besides   being 
valuable  as  manure. 

Conclusion. — The  economies  of  nature  and  science  teach  us  to  waste- 
nothing,  to  despise  nothing,  however  humble  and  useless  it  may  see:«i. 
The  story  of  the  man  who  made  a  large  fortune  by  buying  up  waste- 
bread  from  inns  might  be  told  ;  or  of  the  boy  who  paid  the  yearly- 
rent  by  the  sale  of  large  strawberries  which  he  had  cultivated  by 
collecting  sea  weed,  and  using  it  as  manure. 


NELSON. 

I.  Introduction. — Reckoned  the  greatest  naval  commander  that  ever 

lived.     He  established  England's  supremacy  on  the  sea.    Was  always^ 
brave,  patriotic,  and  humane. 

II.  Birth  and  Boyhood. 

(a)  The  son  of  a  clergyman,  the  rector  of  Burnham,  Norfolk.     Bom^ 

1755.     Called  Horatio,  after  his  godfather. 
{b)  As  a  boy  had  weak  health,  but  great  courage  and  resolution. 

(c)  Went  to  sea  with  his  uncle  at  the  age  of  twelve. 

III.  Sea  Life. 

(a)  Served  in  the  West  Indies. 

(b)  Went  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  East  Indies,  and  the  Spanish  Main, 
{c)  Made  post-captain  when  twenty-one  years  of  age. 

(d)  Distinguished  himself  during  the  American  War. 

IV.— Loses  an  Eye  and  an  Arm. 

(a)  Given  command  of  the  Agamemnon,  and  is  sent  to  the  Mediter- 
...   -          ranean.     Loses  an  eye  at  Calvi. 

\b)  Helps  to  gain  the  battle  of  St.  Vincent.     Soon  after  loses  his  arm 

in  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Teneriffe. 
{c)  Returns  to  England  and  suffers  much. 
V.  Is  made  Baron  and  Viscount. 

(a)  Is  appointed  to  H.M.S.  "Vanguard,"  and  defeats  the  French  at 

the  battle  of  the  Nile.     Is  made  **  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile." 
{b)  Sent  to  the  Baltic  in  1800.     After  battle  of  Copenhagen  made- 
Viscount. 


COMPOSITION.  243 


VI.  Death. 

(a)  Takes  command  on  the  Mediterranean  as  Admiral  in  1803. 

{l>)  Attacks  the  French  Fleet  at  Boulogne,  and  is  defeated. 

{c)  Battle  of  Trafalgar  where  he  meets  his  death  21st  October,  1S05. 

VII.  Coiiclusion.~Nelson  was  a  genius,  and  left  the  stamp  of  genius 
on  all  that  he  did,  whether  the  duty  was  high  or  lowly.  His  whole 
career  from  the  time  he  entered  the  navy  till  he  fell  at  Trafalgar  was 
that  of  a  hero,  and  if  any  man  earned  the  right  to  address  to  others 
the  famous  saying  which  has  been  handed  down  to  us — England 
expects  every  juan  to  do  his  duty — it  was  surely  Admiral  Lord  Nelson. 


TREES. 

I.  Definition. — A  perennial  plant,  belonging  to  the  Vegetable  Kingdom, 

with  a  woody  trunk,  often  rising  to  a  great  height. 

II.  Ch.a  racier istics. 

(a)  Strength  (the  most  hardy  production  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom). 

[b)  Endurance  (the  most  long-lived  vegetable). 
{c)  Beauty. 

{d)  Utility. 

III.  Varieties  of  Trees.— Determined  by  the  climate. 

{a)  In  tropical  climates  they  grow  to  a  great  size,  bear  luxuriant  foliage 

and  luscious  fruit. 
{h)  In  temperate  climes  trees  are  plentiful,  though  of  fewer  varieties, 

the  fruit  is  smaller,  the  trees  of  more  moderate  height. 
{c)  In  cold  regions  trees  are  hardy  and  stunted,  bear  no  fruit  fit  for 

human  food,  do  not  lose  their  leaves  in  winter,  but  are  evergreen. 

IV.  Value  of  Trees. 

[a)   Useful  in  giving  shade,   and  in  making  the  temperature  more 

equable  and  the  climate  healthier. 
{b)   Useful  for  wood,  of  service  for  building  purposes,  and  fuel.    (Oak, 

pine,  maple,  walnut.) 
{c)   Useful  for  their  sap.     (Maple,  pitch-pine.) 
i^d)   Useful  as  food. 

(i)  For  man — fruit  of  the  apple,  pear,  plum,  palm,  etc. 
(2)  For  animals— oak. 
{fi)  Shelter  for  birds. 
(/)  Foliage  purifies  the  air,  and  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  earth. 

V.  Conclusion. — The  great  importance  and  usefulness  of  trees  should 

make  everyone  try  to  protect  them  from  injury,  and  cultivate  them 
•extensively  in  suitable  situations. 


246 


CHAPTER    XV. 


Elocution. 

y^^TLOCUTION  may  be  briefly  defined  as  the  art  of  correct 
V_J'  reading,  reciting,  and  speaking.  A  good  elocutionist 
not  only  takes  care  that  his  words  are  delivered  in 
such  a  way  that  their  sense  cannot  possibly  be  misunderstood, 
but  also  that  they  are  uttered  with  all  the  force  and  beauty  of 
which  they  are  capable. 

The  voice  of  a  trained  reader  or  speaker  has  certain  agreeable 
characteristics,  which  it  is  rather  difficult  to  define.  To  begin. 
with,  its  very  sound  pleases.  It  is  round,  clear,  and  smooth 
in  tone,  and  in  every  way  pleasant  to  the  ear;  It  is  perfectly 
natural  and  free  from  all  exaggeration  of  expression.  There- 
are  no  disagreeable  nasal  twangs,  harsh  guttural  sounds,  or 
aff"ected  mannerisms.  Each  word  is  given  its  full  value,  and  is- 
pronounced  with  perfect  distinctness.  A  sing-song  tone  011 
the  one  hand,  or  a  sententious  utterance  on  the  other,  are 
equally  avoided ;  and  attention  to  pause  and  emphasis,  lends- 
impressiveness  to  the  words  enunciated. 

Elocution,  in  the  modified  form  of  **  Recitation,"  has  a 
place  in  the  curriculum  of  every  elementary  school  for  boys 
or  girls  in  England.  A  specified  number  of  lines  of  poetry 
must  be  committed  to  memory,  and  repeated  at  the  yearly 
inspection,  by  each  child  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  State^ 

The  prescribed  passages  are  of  moderate  length,  and  make 
no  very  serious  demands  on  the  powers  of  the  young  learners. 
Yet  their  educational  value  is  not  small,  and  it  is  matter  for 
congratulation,  that  while,  by  recent  codes,  the  study  of 
grammar  has  wisely  been  made  optional,  recitation  is  still 
retained  as  a  regular  part  of  the  school  course. 


-ELOCUTION.  247 


General  Benefits  of  Elocution.— The  training  of  the 
voice  and  expression,  which  forms  the  main  part  of  insiruction 
in  elocution,  is  of  substantial  advantage  to  everyone,  no  matter 
what  his  or  her  vocation  may  be. 

In  domestic  and  social  life,  such  training  confers  the  power  ot 
adding  materially  to  the  happiness  of  those  with  whom  we 
live.  It  avails  little  to  have  something  pleasant  to  say,  unless 
we  can  say  it  pleasantly  ;  while  even  an  unwelcome  truth  may 
be  shorn  of  half  its  bitterness,  if  expressed  in  gentle  tones  and 
with  sympathetic  manner.  Are  we  not  all  well  aware,  too, 
that  upon  our  introduction  to  a  stranger,  we  instantly  receive 
either  a  favourable  impression  or  the  reverse,  according  to 
his  manner,  and  mode  of  speech  ?  Then,  in  mercantile 
put:suits,  how  largely  does  a  man's  success  depend  upon  the 
possession  of  a  pleasing  address  !  It  not  seldom  happens 
that  a  good  situation  is  lost,  simply  because  the  applicant  has 
never  been  trained  to  speak  with  ease  and  a  certain  degree  of 
polish.  Lastly,  in  public  life,  the  ability  to  clothe  the 
thoughts  in  forcible  and  convincing  language  makes  a  man 
all-powerful. 

Moreover,  there  is  much  that  is  educative  in  the  study 
of  elocution ;  for  it  strengthens  the  mental  faculties  through 
the  strict  attention  which  must  often  be  given  simultaneously 
to  numerous  details,  while  it  enlarges  the  understanding  and 
purifies  the  taste  by  bringing  the  mind  of  the  student  into 
touch  with  the  noblest  and  best  thoughts  of  men  of  genius. 

Recitation  in  Elementary  Schools. — Many  people, 
though  ready  to  allow  that  a  certain  amount  of  elocutionary 
power  is  useful  to  people  in  general,  yet  question  the  expe- 
diency of  teaching  recitation  to  the  children  of  primary  schools. 
But  these  persons  are  mistaken.  It  would  truly  be  a  manifest 
absurdity  to  attempt'  to  give  little  boys  and  girls  systematic 
training  in  declamation  and  oratory.  Yet  our  children  would 
sustain  a  distinct  loss  if  they  were  deprived  of  such  elemen- 
tary instruction  in  elocution  as  they  are  capable  of  receiving. 


248  ELOCUTION. 

This  Subject  often  treated  Superficially.— What 

are  the  results  of  elocution  as  ordinarily  taught  in  our  schools  ? 
Far  from  satisfactory,  it  must  be  acknowledged.  The  total 
lack  of  sympathy  with  their  subject  evinced  by  many  of  the 
children,  together  with  their  droning  accents,  and  complete 
ignorance  of  the  principles  of  emphasis  and  modulation,  com- 
bine too  often  to  make  the  hearing  of  the  *' recitation"  a  veritable 
penance  for  H.M.  Inspectors.  Doubtless  there  are  exceptions ; 
and  the  listener  is,  at  times,  surprised  and  charmed  by  the 
spirit  with  which  some  poem  is  rendered  by  the  pupils  of  a 
well-taught  school ;  but  the  ordinary  effect  is  so  bad  that  it 
points  plainly  to  serious  defects  in  the  mode  of  teaching. 

The  Plan  usually  Pursued. — What  is  the  method 
commonly  followed  in  preparing  the  class-recitation  for  In- 
spection day  ? 

The  first  mistake  made  is  to  suppose  that  anyone  can  teach 
the  words,  consequently  the  text  of  the  piece  chosen  is  ground 
mechanically  into  the  scholars  by  a  junior  teacher,  till  (by 
hard  drill)  they  can  almost  repeat  it  backwards.  The 
"recitation"  is  then  taken  in  hand  by  someone  of  more  experi- 
ence, who  adds  a  veneer  of  artificial  expression  by  repeating 
the  passage  over  and  over  again,  and  bidding  the  children 
copy  exactly  every  variation  of  tone,  etc.  And,  since  in  nineteen 
cases  out  of  twenty,  there  has  been  little  or  no  preparation  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  for  this  elocutionary  exercise,  the 
result  can  only  be  an  inferior  imitation  of  what  was,  to  start 
with,  extremely  unsatisfactory. 

This  imitative  process  being  accomplished,  the  instruction 
-ends — where  it  should  have  begun — by  some  explanation 
being  given  of  the  meaning  of  the  passage  under  treatment. 

A  more  Rational  Method  required.— If  only  a  good 
system  be  adopted,  there  is  no  reason  why  rudimentary  elocu- 
tion may  not  be  so  taught  as  to  become  a  source  of  both  pleasure 
and  profit  to  the  children ;  and  the  plain  directions  which  follow 


ELOCUTION.  249 


will  be  found  a  means  to  this  desirable  end.  But  let  not  anyone 
open  the  Manual  at  this  chapter,  with  the  sanguine  ex- 
pectation of  finding  some  ready-made  system  of  rules  adapted 
to  all  circumstances.  In  this  department  of  education,  more 
perhaps  than  in  others,  nature's  guidance  must  be  followed ; 
and  the  rules  of  nature  are  never  either  mechanical  or  ab- 
struse. Indeed,  it  is  principles  rather  than  rules  that  are 
wanted  here,  and  they  must  be  grounded  on  practical 
common  sense. 

When  once  teachers  have  mastered  these  principles,  they 
will  not  find  it  difficult  to  draw  up  rules  for  their  own 
use,  which  will  be  of  more  value  than  any  which  could 
be  culled  from  treatises  on  the  art  of  oratory. 

The  few  directions  here  given,  will  be  found  useful  by 
those  called  to  teach  children.  For  more  technical  and 
advanced  instruction,  our  readers  must  be  referred  to  some  of 
the  many  standard  works  on  rhetoric  w^hich  are  already 
published. 

Recitation  should  be  more  Frequently  Practised. 

— First,  let  it  be  observed  that  it  would  be  utterly  unreasonable 
to  expect  that  the  learning  of  a  single  piece  of  poetry  yearly, 
however  well  it  might  be  understood  and  recited,  could  lead 
children  to  appreciate  the  gems  of  literature,  or  improve 
their  taste  in  any  marked  degree.  No,  if  the  teaching 
of  this  subject  is  to  bear  any  permanent  fruit,  it  must  have 
a  recognised  place  in  the  daily  time-table  of  the  school. 
A  cultivated  taste,  and  the  power  of  reading  with  correct 
expression,  are  usually  faculties  of  slow  growth  ;  and  when,  as 
is  sometimes  the  case,  the  external  circumstances  of  the  chil- 
dren are  anything  but  conducive  to  these  acquirements,  it 
behoves  teachers  to  give  all  under  their  charge  constant  and 
systematic  training  in  school. 

Such.  Training  a  source  of  subsequent  Enjoy- 
ment.— Only  those  who  have  accustomed  themselves  to  store 


250  .ELOCUTION. 


the  memory  from  early  youth  with  beautiful  passages  of  prose 
and  poetry,  can  realise  the  pleasure  experienced  by  calling 
them  to  mind  in  after  years.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that 
children  would  look  back  to  their  school-(days  as  a  far  happier 
period,  if  their  minds  had  thus  been  supplied  with  pure  and 
beautiful  ideas. 

We  would,  therefore,  recommend  that  at  least  once  a  fort- 
night a  fresh  piece  of  poetry  "or  other  passage,"  should  be 
taken  in  hand,  and  taught  according  to  the  suggestions  offered 
in  the  following  pag^s. 

Choice  of  Suitable  Pieces. — Let  the  subject  selected 
be  not  only  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  children,  but  also 
likely  to  interest  them.  Those  to  whom  the  choice  is  en- 
trusted, must  remember  that  the-  learners  range  in  age  from 
seven  to  thirteen,  not  from  thirteen  to  twenty.  The  extreme 
difficulty  and  dryness  (from  a  child's  point  of  view)  of  many 
pieces  chosen,  are  responsible  for  a  large  proportion  of  the 
*•  defective  recitation  "  complained  of.  It  is  true  that  the 
ultimate  decision  rests  with  the  Inspector  ;  but  teachers  have 
it  in  their  power  to  seek  out  and  suggest  what  is  simple  and 
suitable. 

Three  Points  must  have  Attention. — It  may  be  of 

use  here  to  point  out  that  the  poetry  chosen  for  recitation 
should — (i)  be  written  in  a  metre  that  will  be  easy  and 
natural  to  children  ;  (2)  should  treat  of  such  subjects  as  they 
can  understand ;  and  (3)  express  feelings  that  they  can  enter 
into  and  sympathise  with. 

Metre. — With  regard  to  metre,  it  may  be  remarked  that 
blank  verse,  and  rhymed  verse  with  long  lines,  are  unsuited 
to  younger  pupils.  In  the  lower  standards  those  metres 
should  be  selected  which  flow  easily.  Poetry  so  written 
is  very  easily  learnt  and  remembered,  and  forms  a  good 
foundation  for  something  more  difficult,  later  on. 

Such  examples  will  not  necessarily  be  always  found  among 


ELOCUTION.  25r 


the  writings  of  what  are  called  the  standard  authors.  Indeed^ 
so  long  as  the  principal  piece  of  the  year — the  one  to  be 
recited  on  the  day  of  inspection — is  by  a  wTiter  of  world- 
wide celebrity,  it  will  often  be  found  best  to  select  the  "re- 
mainder of  the  poetry  from  other  sources.  Many  pieces 
of  great  excellence — for  children  at  least — have  been  written 
by  authors  of  whom  little  is  known. 

At  first,  passages  of  an  allegorical,  dramatic,  impassioned,, 
declamatory,  or  satirical  character  should  be  avoided.  If 
they  are  introduced  at  all,  it  must  be  when  the  scholars- 
are  old  enough  to  be  capable  of  appreciating  them. 
Neither  should  the  poetry  for  the  early  standards  contain 
metaphorical  allusions,  unless  they  be  such  as  admit  of  easy 
explapatipn. 

Only  Certain  Sentiments  can  be  Comprehended 
by  Children. — Subjoined  is  a  list  of  those  feelings  whicb 
are  easily  understood  by  the  young,  and  which,  consequently^ 
can  be  more  or  less  correctly  expressed  by  them  : — 

Cheerfulness,  joy,  delight,  wonder,  shame,  revenge,  boasting,  fear,  pride^ 
sorrow,  hope,  courage,  respect,  aftection,  anger,  fatigue,  peevishness,, 
idleness,  liveliness,  industry. 


The  Teacher's  Preparation. 

A  Perfect  Acquaintance  with  the  Passage  is; 
Needlul. — Unless  the  lines  selected  are  already  famihar,  let 
the  teacher  study  them  carefully,  in  private,  before  bringing 
them  to  the  notice  of  the  class.  .  How  can  children  be 
expected  to  recite  with  intelligence,  if  their  teachers  are- 
ignorant  of  the  aim  and  meaning  of  the  poem  in  question  ? 
Perchance  they  have  never  read  it  through  in  their  lives,  yet 
they  rashly  proceed  to  instruct  others  in  the  fittest  way  of 
rendering  its  meaning. 

All  who  profess  to  teach  even  the  merest  elements  of 
elocution  should  lay  the  following  maxim  well  to  heart.     The: 


252  ELOCUTION. 

•correct  recitation  of  a  passage  depends  upon  the  speaker* s  ability 
to  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  author  and  to  sympathise  with  his 
sentiments.  Now,  by  diligent  study  alone,  can  we  discern 
the  intention  of  an  author  in  writing  a  particular  passage. 

Sometimes  Helpful  to  make  an  Analysis. — The 

full  sense  of  a  passage  would  sometimes  be  more  easily  eluci- 
dated, if  the  teacher  analyzed  it  by  supplying  answers  to 
such  questions  as  the  following  : — 

{a)  What  is  the  dominant  idea  contained  in  these  lines  ? 

{b)  Which  are  the  subordinate  ideas,  and  what  relation  do  they  bear  to 

the  leading  sentiment  ? 
{c)  Can    I    form    any   notion   of  the  author's  frame  of  mind  when  he 

composed  this  ? 
{d)  What  circumstances  may  be  supposed  to  have  led  him  (i)  to  write  it, 
and  (2)  to  express  himself  in  this  particular  manner? 

By  this  means  the  earnest  teacher  may  succeed  not  only 
in  arriving  at  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  passage* 
but  in  arousing  in  her  own  mind  a  certain  sympathy  with 
the  feelings  and  motives  of  the  writer.  And  this  will 
be  found  an  effectual  aid  towards  putting  the  subject 
-clearly  and  forcibly  before  the  class.  Very  beneficial  is  it  for 
teachers  to  recite  diligently  in  private  what  they  will  have 
to  teach  in  public — not  attempting  to  instruct  others  until 
they  are  satisfied  that  they  can  give  a  fair  reproduction  of  the 
writer's  ideas — with  the  correct  articulation,  pauses,  and 
•emphasis. 

To  each  word,  clause,  and  sentence,  let  the  full  value  be 
assigned — not  only  as  considered  separately,  but  as  taken  in 
connection  with  the  rest. 


Teaching  the  Recitation. 

Having  made  conscientious  preparation,  let  the  passage 
t)e  introduced  to  the  class.  The  following  directions  may  be 
of  service  to  the  inexperienced  : — 


ELOCUTION.  253 


(a)  Begin  by  talking  to  the  class  about  the  poem,  telling  them,  informally^ 
what  it  is  about,  and  why  it  was  written.  Whatever  the  subject  may 
be,  try  to  give  them  some  information  respecting  it— making  all  as 
interesting  and.  life-like  as  you  are  able.  To  this  end,  make  full  use. 
of  any  illustrations  you  can  procure. 

{5)  Read  it  aloud  more  than  once,  with  taste  and  feeling. 

(f )  Go  through  it  with  reference  to  the  grammatical  construction,  breaking 
up  into  the  proper  divisions,  and  paraphrasing  when  necessary. 

(d)  Next,  explain  the  meaning  of  every  difficult  word  and  phrase,  directing: 
attention  to  any  metaphor  or  allegorical  expression.  Repeat  this» 
till  the  subject-matter  is  thoroughly  understood. 

(e)  Afterwards,  read  the  lines  through  for  the  purpose  of  pointing  out 

where  the  emphasis  and  pauses  ought  to  come,  and  why.  Try,  alL 
through  the  lesson,  to  inspire  the  children  with  your  own  appreciation, 
of  the  passage. 

(/)  Then,  Mid  not  before,  let  the  pupils  read  the  recitation.  They  must- 
do  this  aloud  (and  often)  until  you  feel  they  can  be  trusted  to  study^ 
it  alone.  The  younger  children  may  also  be  desired  to  make  a  fair, 
copy  of  the  words,  and  older  pupils  to  write  out  a  prose  analysis  of 
the  same. 

In  the  last  place,  acquaint  the  class  with  any  interesting  facts  you  know 
respecting  the  author,  the  names  of  his  other  works,  etc. 

Before  beginning  a  class-lesson  upon  any  particular  passage,. 
it  is  well  to  have  the  lines  written  out  on  wide  bhnd-holland,, 
with  the  stops  and  rhetorical  pauses  marked ;  this,  when 
placed  before  the  children,  is  a  great  help  to  them. 

Mere  Imitation  to  be  Avoided.— Throughout  the 
instruction,  pains  must  be  taken  to  avoid  producing  artificial 
expression — inere  mimicry.  Children  can  perform  surprising 
feats  in  the  way  of  repeating  correctly  what  conveys  no  idea 
to  them.  They  can  also  be  so  trained  as  to  appear  to 
feel  deeply  the  pathos  of  some  poem,  when  they  have  not  the 
smallest  real  appreciation  of  the  subject.  But  such  exhibitions 
as  these  only  give  pain  to  those  who  love  the  young,  and  would' 
fain  guard  their  simpUcity  and  truthfulness. 


254  ELOCUTION. 


Some  Principles  of  Elocution. 

We  shall  now  consider  briefly  a  few  principles  of  elocution 
which  ought  to  be  thoroughly  understood,  even  though  they 
may  not  appear  to  have  ^ny  direct  bearing  upon  recitation 
•as  commonly  taught  in  Elementary  Schools. 

Management  of  the  Breath. — ^The  air  we  breathe  is 
the  material  out  of  which  our  words  are  created,  and  children 
should  be  taught  the  approved  method  of  controlling  "the 
respiration  when  reading  or  reciting.  They  should  be  in- 
structed to  inflate  the  chest  before  commencing,  and  then  to 
keep  it  well  filled  so  long  as  they  continue  to  speak— to  let 
their  words  float  out  (so  to  say)  upon  the  air  they  exhale. 

The  observant  teacher  will  notice  that  some  children  have  a 
habit  of  beginning  to  read  or  speak  with  the  chest  empty  and 
contracted..  They  then  catch  at  their,  breath,  sometimes  per- 
ceptibly ;  and,  in  so  doing,  suck  in  the  first  few  words,  which, 
consequently,  are  all  but  inaudible.  Others  in  the  class  drop 
the  voice  at  every  comma — if  not  oftener — owing  to  their  not 
having  been  trained  to  keep  up  a  good  supply  of  air  in  the 
lungs.  They  take  breath  too  infrequently,  and  often  in  the 
wrong  place. 

The  amount  of  air  which  suffices  to  preserve  life,  is  not 
•enough  to  support  the  voice  during  sustained  speech. 
Accordingly,  deeper  inspirations  must  be  taken,  and  all 
opportunities  of  adding  to  the  supply  in  the  lungs  made  the 
most  of.  Even  the  briefest  possible  pause  may  be  utilised  for 
the  purpose.  The  operation  should  be  imperceptible;  for  to 
:see  a  person  almost  gasping  for  breath  has  anything  but  a 
pleasing  effect. 

Practice. — Most  writers  on  elocution  recommend  that 
learners  should  have  regular  drill  in  both  holding  and  taking 
breath,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  practice  is  of  con- 
■siderable  utility.  Not  only  does  it  impress  upon  children  that 
4he  manner  in  which  they  breathe  signifies — a  fact  which  will 


ELOCUTION.  255 


be  quite  new  to  many  of  them — but  it  helps  them  to  give  full 
value  to  certain  vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  which  they  are 
apt  to  slur  over  in  ordinary  conversation.  It  is  only  by  much 
patient  practice  that  some  children  can  be  habituated  to 
pronounce  the  vowel  sounds  aright. 

Here  are  a  few  breathing  exercises  : — 

(a)  Begin  by  practising  the  scholars  in  the  vowel-sounds  — a,  ah,  aiv, 

'  Cy  i,  0,  oi,  ow,  «,  00.      Let  them  sustain  each  in  turn  to  the  full 

'     extent  of  their  breathing-power,  swelling  out  the  note  in  the  middle, 

.   and  then  letting  it  die  gently  away.     Next,  let  every  sound  be  given 

several   times  in  succession  —  the  pupil  taking  a  quick  unapparent 

breath  between 

{b)  Another  good  exercise  is  to  cause  the  children  to  say  the  ordinary 
tables  deliberately  and  distinctly.  First,  with  as  little  taking  of 
breath  as  may  be— the  deep  inspiration  they  commence  with  being 
made  to  hold  out  to  its  full  length.  Again,  let  ihern  repeat  the  tables, 
and  replenish  the  breath  between  each  separate  clause. 

{c)  At  another  time,  the  pupils  may  be  required  to  count  slowly  up  to  100, 
taking  breath  only  at  regular  intervals  indicated  by  the  teacher — these 
intervals  being  gradually  lengthened.     Or,  counting  may  be  practised 
,  with  a  gentle  expansion  of  the  lungs  before  each  number. 

{ji)  The  months  of  the  year  may  be  repeated  in  the  same  way,  or  any 
other  sequence  of  words  that  seems  appropriate. 

{e)  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  their  sounds,  may  be  given — the  breath 
-  being  held.     Sometimes  these  may  be  said  in  a  loud,  strong  voice  ; 
at  others  in  a  whisper  ;  now  upon  a  high  note,  again  upon  a  low  one  ; 
and  so  forth. 

Most  young  people  would  be  benefited  by  being  occasionally 
subjected  to  a  little  of  such  breathing-drill,  by  way  of  prelude 
to  an  ordiniary  reading-lesson,  no  less  than  when  they  are 
having  practice  in  recitation. 

Nor  need  we  fear  that  this  exercise  will  be  prejudicial  to 
the  health  of  our  scholars.  Using  the  various  muscles  of  the 
body,  we  all  know,  conduces  greatly  to  physical  vigour ;  and 
those  of  the  respiratory  organs  offer  no  exception  to  the 
general  rule. 

Shauld,  however,  the  lungs  be  at  all  diseased,  the  chest 


256  ELOCUTION. 


and  throat  delicate,  or  the  children  starved  and  under-sized^ 
breathing-drill  must  be  used  with  care  and  caution. 


Articulation. 

Articulation  means  the  correct  pronunciation  of  words  and 
syllables.  Children,  when  untrained,  have  commonly  a  very 
faulty  way  of  speaking.  They  run  the  words  into  each  other > 
leave  out  whole  syllables,  and  clip  off  the  terminations.  In 
addition  to  these  defects,  many  children  habitually  mis- 
pronounce certain  words.  Constant  practice  will  alone 
eradicate  these  faults. 

Importance  of  Clear  Articulation. — To  articulate 
clearly  and  distinctly  is  of  primary  importance  to  good 
speaking  or  reading.  A  person  with  a  weak  voice  but  clear 
utterance  is  heard  better,  and  at  greater  distance,  than  one 
with  a  powerful  voice  but  defective  articulation.  The  faults 
to  be  chiefly  guarded  against  under  this  head,  are  mumbling, 
hurried  utterance,  clipping  and  jerking  out  the  words,  or — on 
the  other  hand — trailing  and  drawling  them.  The  vowels  are 
the  most  important  part  of  words,  and  if  due  prominence  is 
given  to  these,  the  consonants  will  generally  take  care  of  them- 
selves. 

The  teacher  should  contrive  that  the  children  at  least 
begin  well,  by  insisting  upon  the  first  words  being  said  very 
distinctly — albeit  in  a  quiet  tone  of  voice.  Above  all,  pains 
must  be  taken  to  make  them  recite  slowly.  Some  writers  on 
elocution  go  so  far  as  to  assert  th.at  "  Rapid  utterance  lies  at 
the  root  of  every  fault  that  can  be, committed  in  recitation." 
Each  word  should  emerge  from  the  lips  clear  and  full,  like  the 
sound  of  a  bell  that  is  made  pf  the  best  metal.  To  produce 
this  desirable  effect,  the  final  consonant  in  each  word  ipust  be 
distinctly  sounded.  Unless  this  is  attended  to,  an  entirely 
wrong  meaning  may  be  given,  as  will  \)e.  perceived  by  the 


ELOCUTION.  257 


following  examples.  **  Who  ever  imagined  such  an  ocean  to 
exist  ? — Who  ever  imagined  such  a  notion  to  exist  ? "  "That 
lasts  till  night.— That  last,  still  night."  "The  cry  moved 
him. — The  crime  moved  him." 


Modulation. 

Much  of  the  beauty  of  elocution  depends  upon  the  way  the 
voice  is  modulated.  This  modulation  should  always  be  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  subject,  and  mark  the  transition  from  one 
kind  of  emotion  to  another.  To  even  a  superficial  observer, 
it  must  be  clear  that  certain  subjects  require  a  loud  tone, 
others  a  soft  one  ;  to  some  a  quick,  to  others  a  slow  measure 
is  appropriate ;  now  the  voice  should  be  pitched  high, 
then  low.  To  secure  this  variety  of  expression,  attention 
must  be  paid  to  (i)  pitch,  (2)  force,  (3)  time,  and  (4)  inflection. 
All  these  come  under  the  head  of  modulation^  and  we  will 
give  a  few  hints  about  each  : — 

Pitch  of  Voice. — Pitch  means  the  key — whether  high  or 
the  reverse — in  which  a  person  speaks.  But  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that,  in  these  pages,  we  are  treating  of  elocution  for 
children.  Now,  the  voice  of  a  child  is  immature,  and  rarely 
possesses  much  compass.  Consequently,  most  of  the  advice 
given  by  professors  of  the  art,  must  be  accepted  with  limita- 
tions, when  very  youthful  reciters  are  in  question. 

How  Pitch  of  Voice  is  Regulated.— Whether  the 

reciter  is  to  speak  in  a  high  or  low  key,  will  depend  entirely 
upon  the  sense.  Prose  or  poetry  that  is  expressive  of  joy, 
triumph,  or  command,  requires  a  high  key ;  sadness  or  awe  a 
low-pitched  voice.  Naturally,  the  medium  pitch  is  most 
frequently  called  for.  Unless  there  is  obvious  reason  to  the 
v:ontrary,  children  should  be  instructed  to  begin  in  a  key 
pitched  moderately  high.  A  little  practice  in  changing  from 
high  to  low,  and  vice  versa,  gives  elasticity  to  the  voice. 

s 


258^  ELOCUTION. 


Force. — This  determines  whether  the  voice  shall  be  strong 
and  full,  or  subdued.  A  man  with  a  full-toned  voice  can  give 
considerable  effect  to  a  passage  by  varying  the  force  with 
which  he  speaks ;  and  even  with  children  a  pleasing  variety 
may  be  introduced  by  paying  attention  to  this  part  of  modula- 
tion. The  mistake  must  not  be  made  that  force  means  noise. 
True  force  gives  the  idea  of  moral  power,  and  is  characterised 
by  dignity  and  stateliness  of  tone,  rather  than  by  increase  in 
the  volume  of  sound. 

Another  error,  common  among  children,  is  that  of  sub- 
stituting pitch  for  force.  They  elevate  the  voice  to  a  higher 
key,  when  they  ought  to  deepen  the  sound.  This  defect  is 
particularly  natural  to  girls,  and  (it  may  be  added)  to  women. 
Who  has  not  heard  housewives  of  the  uneducated  class,  when 
their  feelings  were  roused,  ascend  the  scale  gradually  till  the 
voice  reached  a  scream  ? 

The  rules  laid  down  for  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  follow 
the  principle  that  all  elocution  is  based  on  true  conversation, 
and  consequently  that  elocutionary  rules  are  much  the  same 
as  those  which  govern  ordinary  speech.  This  shows  us  that 
the  voice,  when  reciting,  should  be  strong  and  deep,  or  soft 
and  gentle,  much  as  is  the  cultivated  voice  in  conversation. 

Time. — Time  has  regard  to  the  quickness  or  slowness 
with  which  words  are  uttered.  This  is  indispensable  to  good 
recitation,  and  a  disregard  of  its  principles  is  the  cause  of 
much  of  that  monotony  in  public  speaking  which  has  such  an 
unpleasant  effect.  What  can  be  thought  of  the  taste  or  sense 
of  a  person,  who  preserves  precisely  the  same  pace  whether 
speaking  of  a  banquet  or  a  funeral  ?  But  far  worse  is  the 
very  ordinary  fault  of  adopting  a  sort  of  rhythmic  measure — 
allotting  to  each  syllable  precisely  the  same  time  as  the 
others — quite  regardless  of  the  meaning,  which  is  completely 
sacrificed  to  a  dreary,  half-singing  intonation.  This  sing- 
song, as  it  is  called,  is  the  bane  of  school-room  recitation,  and 
can  only  be  banished  by  first-rate  instruction  and  training. 


ELOCUTION.  259 


It  is  fatal  to  all  true  expression  to  make  the  sense  give  way  to 
the  time,  instead  of  regulating  the  time  strictly  by  the  sense. 
•  When  care  is  taken  to  speak  at  a  suitable  rate — now  fast, 
now  slow,  as  the  occasion  seems  to  warrant — it  gives  the 
impression  that  the  speaker  is  calm  and  self-possessed.  On 
the  contrary,  a  hurried,  monotonous  utterance  betrays  nerv- 
ousness or  excitement.  Children,  as  a  rule,  are  given  to 
hurrying  the  time  as  soon  as  they  have  learnt  the  words,  and 
great  watchfulness  is  needed  to  check  this  tendency.  The 
most  skilful  teaching  of  a  passage  will  be  thrown  away,  if  the 
pupils  are  allowed  to  rush  through  it  at  full  speed.  It  is 
.allowable  to  speak  rather  quickly  when  the  words  denote  rapid 
motion,  change,  animation  or  cheerfulness ;  but  when  grief, 
■despair,  misfortune,  or  death  are  spoken  of,  the  time  should 
be  solemn  and  slow. 

We  may  remark  here,  that,  while  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  children  can  mark  the  various  shades  of  feeling  in  a  poem, 
to  the  same  extent  as  grown  people,  yet  they  can  be  trained 
more  or  less  to  vary  the  pitch  of  their  voice  and  the  rate  at 
which  they  speak.  And  by  this  means  an  amount  of  taste  and 
•expression  may  be  imparted  to  their  recitation,  which  is  very 
pleasing.  Nor  is  it  so  difficult  as  some  might  suppose  to  teach 
•children  to  modify  the  tone  and  quickness  of  their  words  in 
■accordance  with  the  sentiment  or  emotion  that  has  to  be 
■expressed. 

Inflection. — We  come  next  to  "  Inflection,"  which  is  more 
difficult,  and,  indeed,  hardly  falls  within  the  scope  of  what 
•children  can  accomplish.  However,  any  hints  and  allusions 
under  this  head,  which  appear  too  complicated  for  such 
young  learners,  may  be  found  of  use  in  training  pupil- 
teachers  and  other  students. 

There  are  numerous  lights  and  shades  of  meaning  which 
cannot  be  accurately  rendered,  except  by  the  help  of  '*  Inflec- 
tion." Accordingly,  it  is  sometimes  called — "The  elocutionist's 
crowning  power  of  expression." 


25o  ELOCUTION. 


Inflection  is  the  change  of  the  voice  upon  a  word.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  slide,  because  the  voice  (as  it  were)  slides- 
either  to  a  higher  key  or  a  lower  one.  We  are  probably  very 
little  aware  of  the  part  which  inflection  bears  in  every  conver- 
sation we  hold.  The  voice  changes  each  moment  in  aa 
upward  or  downward  direction,  and  an  amount  of  variety 
is  thus  introduced  into  its  modulations  which  we  are^ 
for  the  most  •  part,  unconscious  of.  This  becomes  very 
apparent  in  listening  to  a  deaf-mute  who  has  been  taught 
to  speak  by  the  modern  system.  He  has  learnt  to  articulate, 
but  as  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  be  taught  the  inflections 
of  which  the  human  voice  is  capable,  he  jerks  out  each 
word  exactly  in  the  same  monotonous  tone.  The  effect 
of  this  is  often  to  give  the  impression  of  a  strong  foreigu 
accent. 

The  Natural  Inflection  should  be  used  in  Reci* 
tation. — The  inflections  we  use,  or  ought  to  use,  in  reading 
or  reciting,  are  regulated  by  the  same  principles  as  those  which,, 
unperceived,  affect  the  voice  in  ordinary  converse ;  but  they 
are  more  emphatic  and  may  be  more  exactly  defined.  How  can 
we  determine  whether  it  is  correct  for  the  voice  to  rise  or  fall 
upon  a  given  word  ?  Beginners  cannot  do  better  than  notice 
the  inflections  which  the  voice  naturally  takes  in  common 
conversation.  By  closely  observing  these,  they  will  learn  much 
— perhaps  ample  for  their  purpose.  Let  them  repeat  aloud 
some  simple  sentence,  such  as — **  Have  you  been  out  this 
morning  ?  " — and  remark  how  the  tone  changes  on  each  word. 
This  will  be  the  more  evident  if  they  first  say  the  same 
sentence  in  monotone. 

Simple  Rules  for  Inflection.— It  may  be  useful  for 
the  teacher  of  elocution  to  keep  in  mind  a  few  of  the  simplest 
laws  which  govern  inflection — always  remembering  that  our 
conception  of  the  author's  sentiments  must  be  our  main  guide 
here,  as  elsewhere 


ELOCUTION.  261 


The  Falling  Inflection  is  used  for  completeness  of  statement, 
for  anything  that  is  asserted,  or  laid  down  as  final ;  also 
for  what  is  commanded,  and  for  all  questions  which  cannot  be 
answered  by  "yes"  or  "no." 

The  rising  inflection^  on  the  contrary,  indicates  incompleteness 
of  statement,  and  expectancy  of  something  further  to  follow. 

Questions  that  can  be  answered  by  "  yes  "  and  "  no,"  and 
the  language  of  request,  surprise,  supplication,  or  appeal, 
require  the  rising  inflection. 

The  end  of  a  sentence  to  which  a  full  stop  is  attached, 
takes  the  falhng  inflection,  e.g.,  "  WilHam  has  returned  from 
Paris."  "  The  drawing  master  has  given  a  lesson  to-day." 
At  the  end  of  a  question,  it  is  right  to  stop  as  long  as  at  a 
period,  and  to  use  generally  the  rising  inflection,  as  if  waiting 
for  an  answer  to  complete  the  sentence.  In  double  questions, 
coupled  by  "or,"  the  first  part  requires  the  rising,  the  second 
the  falling  inflection,  e.g.,  "Did  you  see  the  Queen  or  the 
Princess?"     "  Is  he  selfish  or  generous?" 

When  a  sentence  is  meant  to  express  wonder,  admiration, 
or  strong  feeling  of  any  sort,  it  is  usual  to  drop  the  voice,  e.g.^ 
"  What  a  glorious  sunset ! "  "  How  wonderful  are  the  ways  of 
Providence  ! " 

In  reading  poetry,  the  voice  must  be  sustained — often 
through  several  lines — so  long  as  it  appears  that  there  is 
something  to  follow  before  the  meaning  can  be  made  plain. 
At  a  full  stop,  or  colon,  the  voice  invariably  falls,  but  it  is 
sustained  at  a  comma.  Whether  it  is  to  rise  or  fall  at  a  semi- 
colon, can  only  be  decided  by  the  sense. 

Circumflex  Inflection. — When  the  voice  changes  twice 
on  the  same  word,  the  inflection  is  called  compound, 
or  circumflex.  Writers  on  elocution  recommend  elaborate 
exercises  on  the  circumflex  or  compound  slide.  But  such 
practice  is  not  suited  for  children,  and  the  hints  given  above 
will  be  found  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 


?52  ELOCUTION. 


Emphasis. 

The  Value  of  Emphasis.  —  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  the  most  important  part  of  elocution  consists  in  the 
emphasis,  or  stress,  laid  upon  certain  words.  Why  is  this  ? 
Because  when  the  importance  of  certain  words  above  others 
is  duly  marked,  it  is  the  surest  proof  that  the  meaning  of  the 
author  is  grasped  by  the  reader,  and  it  likewise  enables  the 
latter  to  make  that  meaning  clear  to  his  auditors.  This  is  the 
true  function  of  emphasis,  and  how  totally  does  it  condemn 
the  too  common  habit  of  teaching  it  artificially ! 

Children  Can  Understand  the  Principles  of 
Emphasis.  —  The  reason  why  certain  words  are  more 
emphatic  than  others,  can  often  be  made  clear  to  children^ 
The  teacher  should  explain  that — just  as  each  word  of  more 
than  one  syllable  has  a  specially  accented  syllable — so  every 
sentence  has  a  main  idea,  and  we  are  able  to  give  prominence 
to  this  idea  by  laying  a  particular  stress  upon  one  or  more 
words. 

The  leading  idea  in  any  sentence  is  almost  always  the  new 
idea.  Any  word,  then,  which  introduces  something  not  re- 
ferred to  previously,  must  receive  the  emphasis.  For  instance,. 
in  Longfellow's  *' Excelsior"  the  principal  emphasis  in  the 
sentences — "'Try  not  the  pass,'  the  old  man  said."  *"0h 
stay,'  the  maiden  said,  'and  rest.'"  "A  traveller,  by  the 
faithful  hound,"  —  would  be  upon  '*  pass,"  "  old  man,"" 
"maiden,"  and  "faithful  hound,"  because  they  usher  in  new 
thoughts — something  not  before  alluded  to  in  the  poem. 

The  stress  is  not  always  upon  the  Subject  and 
Predicate. — Supposing  each  clause  of  a  sentence  were  to  be 
taken  singly,  and  considered  on  its  own  merits,  the  stress 
would  be  invariably  upon  the  subject  and  predicate.  But 
clauses  must  usually  be  dealt  with  in  connection  with  the  rest 
of  the  passage;  and  so  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the 
meaning  will  be  best  brought  cut,  by  giving  prominence  to 
what  is,  in  itself,  a  subordinate  word. 


ELOCUTION.  263 


The  grammatical  value  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  is 
unquestionably  of  some  service  in  determining  their  importance 
in  the  sentence  ;  therefore,  when  in  doubt,  we  should  always 
place  the  emphasis  on  both  the  noun  and  the  verb;  or,  failing 
these,  on  words  which  help  to  describe  them,  like  the  adjective 
and  adverb.  But  careful  study  of  a  passage  will  generally 
render  it  unnecessary  to  resort  to  so  mechanical  a  process. 

In  emphasis,  the  effect  is  much  heightened  and  additional 
force  given,  by  making  a  slight  pause  before  and  after  an  im- 
portant word,  or  changing  the  voice  to  a  higher  or  lower  key. 

Exclamations  and  interjections  of  all  kinds  need,  for  the 
most  part,  to  be  strongly  marked.  When  striking  words  are 
reiterated,  each  must  be  more  fully  sounded  than  the 
preceding  one,  as  "Help!  Help!  HELP!"  "Never!  Never! 
NEVER!" 

Antithesis. — The  contrasting  of  one  word  with  another 
has  a  direct  effect  upon  emphasis.  In  contrasted  terms,  it  is  the 
second  which  must  be  made  prominent,  and  this  frequently 
results  in  the  stress  falHng  upon  an  apparently  insignificant 
word.  Now  and  then  it  falls  on  the  prefix  of  a  word  only. 
Adverbs  and  prefixes  expressing  negation  are  often  strongly 
marked. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  pupil  is  recommended  to  pay 
great  attention  to  emphasis,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
when  this  is  overdone  or  wrongly  placed,  it  is  a  grievous 
violation  of  good  taste. 

One  of  the  commonest  and  most  serious  errors  is  that  of 
creating  what  is  called  a  false  antithesis  ;  and  there  is  always 
risk  of  this,  unless  the  true  signification  of  a  passage  is 
diligently  studied,  and  understood. 

The  following  examples  of  false  antithesis  will  explain  what 
is  meant : — 

*'  I  venerate  the  7;mn  whose  heart  is  warm."    This  would  suggest  the  false 

antithesis — I  do  not  venerate  the  ivoman  whose  heart  is  warm. 
*'  I  met  a  little  village  ^/r/" — would  suggest  the  idea — not  a  boy. 
••  Dust  thou  art  to  dust  returnest,"  was  not  spoken  of  the  soul — but  might 
possibly  have  been  written. 


2t)4  ELOCUTION. 


A  Striking  instance  of  false  antithesis  is  afforded  by  many 
clergymen  who  repeat  a  clause  of  the  creed  thus — "  The  third 
day  He  rose  again  from  the  dead,"' — as  though  there  had  been 
a  previous  resurrection. 

A  diligent  and  intelligent  teacher  need  seldom  be  in  doubt 
as  to  which  portion  of  a  passage  should  be  marked.  Often, 
indeed,  it  is  self-evident  that  the  entire  meaning  turns  on  a 
single  word.  Or  again,  it  becomes  plain  that  a  sentence  may 
be  wholly  misunderstood,  unless  two,  three,  or  more  words  are 
made  to  stand  out  in  relief;  then,  just  as  a  painter  makes  his 
background  subordinate  to  the  subject  of  his  picture,  so  must 
the  reader  cause  the  rest  of  the  sentence  to  subserve  the 
dominant  idea. 

The  rule  that  no  word  should  be  made  prominent  which 
could  be  spared  from  a  sentence  without  weakening  the  sense, 
is  a  good  one  to  keep  in  mind. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  the  recitation  jerky,  by 
placing  the  stress  only  upon  very  few  words.  Indeed, 
unless  there  appears  good  reason  to  the  contrary,  it  is  wiser 
to  place  a  moderate  emphasis  on  all  the  principal  words — 
keeping  the  articles,  prepositions,  etc.,  completely  subordinate 
— than  to  mark  merely  a  particular  noun  or  verb  here  and 
there. 

We  all  use  considerable  Emphasis. — Probably  few 
people  have  observed  how  strongly  in  ordinary  speech  they 
mark  some  words  of  every  sentence.  This  is  more  particularly 
true  of  children,  and  of  those  who,  like  children,  are  devoid  of 
self-consciousness.  "May  I  go  out  to  play?"  "I  have  such  a 
difficult  lesson  to  learn."  "We  had  only  dry  bread  for  break- 
fast," says  the  child,  and  not  a  shade  of  doubt  can  exist  in  the 
minds  of  his  hearers  as  to  the  leading  idea  he  desires  to  convey. 
And,  similarly,  the  man  who  is  eager  about  his  subject,  and 
who  has  a  clear  conviction  of  his  purpose,  is  certain  to  speak 
forcibly  and  impressively.  So  also,  those  who  grasp  the  full 
aim  and  beauty  of  what  they  read,  can  readily  decide  which 


ELOCUTION.  265 


^vords  shall,  and  which  shall  not  be  marked  with  peculiar 
emphasis. 


Pause. 

In  good  reading  or  reciting,  there  are  two  distinct  kinds  of 
pauses.  First,  there  are  the  grammatical  pauses,  which  are 
marked  by  points  or  stops.  Secondly,  there  are  shorter 
pauses — occupying  such  a  brief  moment  of  time  as  might  be 
shewn  by  a  half-comma  or  quarter-comma.  These  shorter 
intervals  are  never  indicated  by  authors,  because  they  are 
not  required  by  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentence, 
but  only  for  its  more  effective  delivery. 

The  slight  break  after  a  word  is  called  a  "  Rhetorical  " 
pause.  The  length  of  these  breaks  depends  on  the  importance 
of  the  words  which  precede  and  follow  them,  and  also  upon 
ellipsis.  The  following  sentences  require  no  grammatical 
stop  except  the  period  at  the  end,  and  ordinary  readers  would 
very  probably  read  them  at  equal  speed  throughout.  Yet 
rhetorical  pauses  at  the  words  marked,  would  produce  a 
much  more  pleasing  effect : — 

The  value  of  rhymed  verse'  depends  entirely  upon  the  thought'  or  thoughts' 

enshrined  within  it. 
The  golden  head'  that  was  wont  to  rise  at  that  part  of  the  table'  was  now 

missing. 
Such  men  must'  one  day'  become  the  arbiters  of  the  weal'  or  woe'  of 
nations. 

A  common  error  is  to  imagine  that  the  ordinary  punctua- 
tion marks  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  stops  which  should 
occur  in  reading.  This  is  not  their  object ;  they  are  inserted 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  construction  of  the  sentence 
clear.  True,  they  generally  point  out  where  certain  pauses 
should  come ;  but  these  are  not  nearly  as  many  as  the  laws 
of  good  reading  demand. 

How  these  Pauses  are  Regulated. — In  the  grouping 
of  the  words  of  a  sentence  according  to  their  grammatical 


266  ELOCUTION. 


sequence,  will  be  found  the  best  guide  towards  pausing  in- 
the  proper  place.  Here,  the  correct  rule  is, — that  the  words- 
belonging  to  a  clause  should  be  united,  but  the  clauses- 
themselves  should  be  slightly  separated. 

The  principles  that  govern  the  grouping  of  words,  would 
form  an  interesting  study  for  pupils  old  enough  to  take  it  up. 
There  is  not  space  in  this  volume  to  enter  fully  into  the 
subject.  We  must  accordingly  content  ourselves  with 
pointing  out,  that  a  series  of  well-graduated  exercises  upon 
those  parts  of  speech  which  may  be  combined  for  elocutionary- 
practice,  are  very  improving  to  elder  scholars  and  pupii 
teachers.  Exercises  of  the  kind  we  describe,  are  to  be  met 
with  in  some  of  the  best  manuals  on  elocution. 

Comparative  Length  of  the  Pause. — There  is  room 
for  considerable  skill  in  the  management  of  the  pause ;  not 
only  must  it  be  made  in  the  right  place,  but  it  should  be 
of  suitable  length.  A  striking  effect  is  produced  when  it 
occurs  unexpectedly — a  sudden  break  being  made  which 
calls  the  hearer's  attention  to  something  altogether  out  of  the 
ordinary,  such  as  deep  and  solemn  emotions,  or  mournful 
incidents.  "The  sentence  was — Death."  " There  is  one  sure 
refuge  for  the  oppressed — The  Grave,"  are  examples  of  this 
kind  of  pause.  It  is  obvious  that  it  should  be  rarely  used,  or 
it  will  miss  its  effect. 

The  following  hints  for  pauses  may  be  of  use : 

A  slight  pause  should  be  made — 
{a)  Before  and  after  any  word  which  it  Is  desired  to  emphasize. 

(b)  Before  and  after  a  parenthesis. 

(c)  Between  a  question  and  its  answer. 

(d)  After  an  inverted  sentence  or  part  of  a  sentence. 

{e)  After  a  copulative  conjunction,  if  it  is  separated  from  the  second  wore? 
it  connects. 

(/■)  Very  frequently  after  the  words — but,  then,  nor,  however,  accordingly. 

{g)  Before  and  after  a  phrase  intervening  between  a  nominative  and  its- 
verb. 

{h)  Before  an  adjective  when  \i  follows  the  noun. 

{{)  Wherever  there  are  ellipses,  or  omissions  of  words. 


ELOCUTION.  267 


These  brief  hints  on  elocution — as  applying  to  Elementary 
Schools — may  fitly  end  with  a  few  directions  with  regard  to  the 
position  which  the  class  should  take  up  when  reciting. 

The  proper  use  of  the  voice  requires  an  upright  posture^ 
though  without  rigidity.  Let  the  back  be  kept  straight^ 
the  shoulders  pressed  backwards  and  downwards,  the  chest 
well  raised  and  expanded.  The  head  should  be  held  easily 
erect,  and  the  arms  by  the  sides,  except  when  they  are 
raised  in  appropriate  gesture.  The  heels  should  be  kept  near 
each  other,  and  the  toes  turned  outwards ;  the  right  foot  may  be 
planted  a  little  in  advance  of  the  left. 

The  chest,  as  already  observed,  must  be  kept  well  supplied 
with  air.  Let  the  pupils  be  taught  to  inhale  deeply  and 
gently,  and  to  exhale  slowly.  If  the  mouth  be  kept  well 
opened,  the  throat  will  open  correspondingly,  and  roundness- 
and  fulness  will  be  given  to  the  sounds  that  proceed  from  it. 

The  question  of  gesture  has  not  been  touched  upon.  It 
forms  a  distinct  branch  of  oratory,  and  one  which  is  obviously 
unsuited  to  children.  Nevertheless,  it  is  allowable  to- 
introduce  a  little  action,  whenever  it  would  be  natural  to  the 
youthful  reciters  to  use  it  were  they  conversing ;  also  when 
it  may  be  of  help  in  bringing  out  the  full  meaning  of  a. 
passage. 


268 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


Parting     Counsels. 

^  V  1  'LL  that  has  been  advanced  in  these  pages  has  been 
^^  1  ^  with  the  one  object  of  adding  to  the  happiness  and 
well-being — physical,  intellectual,  and  moral — of  the 
children  of  this  nation.  Much  more  might  have  been  said ; 
"but  the  space  at  command  is  exhausted,  and  we  can  but  add, 
in  this  concluding  chapter,  a  few  words  of  personal  advice  to 
the  teacher.* 

Loftiness  of  the  Vocation.  —  Viewed  aright,  there 
is  no  calling  more  excellent  than  that  of  a  teacher  —  no 
occupation  more  delightful.  Taking  into  consideration  the 
value  of  the  material  to  be  worked  upon  and  its  susceptibility 
of  improvement,  there  is  absolutely  no  field  of  labour  which  is 
more  productive,  or  which  affords  richer  opportunities  for 
devoting  ourselves  to  the  good  of  our  fellow  men. 

Teachers  may  indeed  be  said  to  stand  upon  holy  ground. 
Emissaries  of  the  Most  High,  their  mission  is  to  make 
known  His  sovereign  Will  to  the  creatures  of  His  hand,  and 
to  bring  the  light  of  Divine  Truth  to  shine  upon  their 
ignorance.  They  ought  to  be  the  leaders,  the  inspirers  of 
mankind.  They  should  set  it  before  themselves,  as  the 
supreme  object  of  their  life-toil,  to  change  the  face  of  society — 

*  It  will  be  noticed  that  geography,  history,  and  grammar  have  not  been  touched  upon. 
Xet  not,  however,  our  readers  conclude,  from  this,  that  we  deem  them  unimportant.  On  the 
■contrary,  any  educational  scheme  which  did  not  embrace  (at  least)  the  two  tirst-nained 
subjects,  would  be  incomplete  and  quite  unsatisfactory.  But  they  are  already  ably  treated 
in  numerous  hand-books,  and  it  appeared  better  in  this  manual  to  direct  attention  rathei 
to  composition,  elocution,  and  conversational  lessons,  about  which  very  little  has  hitherto 
teen  written  that  could  be  of  use  in  elementary  teaching.  Grammarj  as  taught  in  primary 
schools,  has  not  proved  of  much  practical  value.  Ihis  failure  is  due  to  the  super- 
ficial method  pursued  in  the  lower  standards.  .Accordingly,  the  Society  will  shortly 
publish  a  little  work  entitled,  "  First  Steps  in  Grammar," 


PARTING    COUNSELS.  26g 


by  rearing  generations  of  men  and  women  animated  by  noble 
aims,  and  bent  upon  doing  their  utmost  to  uphold  truth  and 
righteousness,  and  to  crush  out  and  banish  all  meanness^ 
selfishness,  and  cruelty  from  God's  earth. 

Responsibility  of  their  Calling. — Teachers  cannot 
be  too  much  impressed  by  the  importance  and  solemnity 
of  their  work.  Upon  them  devolves  the  onerous  duty  of  pre-^ 
paring  the  bulk  of  the  rising  generation — not  only  to  fight  the 
battle  of  life,  but  to  fulfil  a  glorious  and  immortal  destiny  in 
the  great  Hereafter.  There  should  be  no  self-deception  in  the 
matter ;  they  ought  to  feel  that  the  motives  with  which 
they  enter  the  profession  are  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God  ; 
and  especially  must  it  be  remembered  that  they  instruct  even 
more  by  their  example,  than  by  the  principles  they  inculcate.. 

Coldness  and  carelessness  in  giving  lessons,  laxity  of  speech 
and  conduct,  indifference  to  the  children's  welfare  and 
comfort,  indulgence  in  irritability  of  temper  or  levity  of 
manner,  cannot  fail  to  make  indelible  and  disastrous  im- 
pressions on  the  young.  To  ignore  their  power  for  good  or 
evil,  to  treat  it  lightly,  to  banish  the  thought  of  it  from  the  mind,, 
will  not  release  instructors  from  the  responsibility  incurred  by 
the  mere  fact' of  having  made  teaching  their  life-work.  If 
evil  and  not  good  is  wrought  through  their  instrumentality, 
they  cannot  be  held  guiltless.  Alas  !  of  many  who  enter  upon 
the  sacred  duties  of  a  teacher,  may  it  not  possibly  be  written — 
'*  Better  had  it  been  for  them  if  they  had  never  been  born," 
for  have  they  not  scandaHsed  the  little  ones  of  the  flock,  and 
hindered  both  their  spiritual  and  mental  growth  ? 

High  Principle  Indispensable. — Is  it  not  obvious 
that  only  those  whose  purposes  are  high  and  pure  should 
undertake  to  lead  and  guide  others  ?  Let  all,  then,  strive  to 
realize  that  while  it  is  easy,  with  average  abilities,  to  become 
a  mere  school  keeper^  to  be  an  educator  demands  virtues  and; 
gifts  of  the  highest  order. 


270  PARTING    COUNSELS. 


Therefore,  we  would  say  to  every  teacher :  Seek  after 
justice,  mercy,  love,  patient  energy,  and  self-devotion  ;  strive 
by  prayer  and  effort  to  make  these  qualities  your  own;  or 
'else  give  yourself  to  some  calling  where  low  principle  will 
■work  less  evil. 


General    Precepts. 

Love  your  Pupils. — Those  who  are  influenced  by  true 
affection  for  the  children  under  their  charge,  unconsciously 
•encourage  the  growth  of  the  higher  and  better  nature  within 
them,  while  others  who  yield  to  apathy  and  harshness  invariably 
•call  into  activity  the  latent  evil  which  lurks  in  every  human 
breast.  It  is  impossible  that  you  should  efficiently  train 
•others,  unless  your  heart  is  in  all  you  do.  It  may  be  asked — 
Is  not  this  fervour  needed  in  all  professions  ?  Yes ;  but 
it  is  peculiarly  required  by  teachers.  Those  who  are  brought 
into  daily  contact  with  numbers  of  fresh  young  minds, 
should  carry  their  heart  in  their  eyes,  in  their  voice,  in 
all  they  do  or  say.  Their  pupils  know  without  being  told, 
whether  they  delight  in  .  their  office,  and  love  to  be  with 
them.  It  is  a  sorrowful  fact  that  there  are  teachers  who 
take  every  opportunity  of  announcing  that  they  cordially 
detest  both  children  and  the  teaching  profession.  We  pity 
the  unfortunate  young  people  committed  to  the  care  of  these 
sham-instructors.  Perhaps  we  pity  still  more  the  shams  them- 
selves. Their  every  conception  of  life  and  its  solemn  duties 
and  reponsibilities,  must  be  wrong  from  the  foundation. 

The  Dull  and  Troublesome  Children.  —  There 
is  no  surer  test  of  unselfish  love  in  teachers,  than  their 
demeanour  towards  the  stupid  and  backward — or  the  tur- 
bulent— members  of  their  flock.  The  naughty,  troublesome 
child— the  "bad  boy"  who  is  to  be  found  in  every  school, 
can  in  most  cases  be  saved  from  himself.  He  has  a  con- 
science and  a  will  which    may  be   roused   to   that  which  is 


PARTING    COUNSELS.  27I 


:good — for  surely  the  Divine  spark  in  his  soul  has  not  been 
utterly  quenched.  To  find  that  spark  and  nurse  it  into  Hfe, 
is  work  which  is  very  nearly  divine.  But  all  depends  upon 
whether  you,  dear  teacher,  love  that  boy — whether  he  is  to  you 
the  one  gone  astray.  If  you  have  even  a  little  love  for  him, 
fan  it  to  a  flame,  and  in  its  warmth  your  whole  school  will 
rise  into  fresher,  more  vigorous  life. 

Then,  with  regard  to  the  stupid,  slow  children,  it  is  helpful 
to  keep  in  mind  that — while  it  does  not  require  a  very  skilful 
instructor  to  be  of  service  to  the  clever  pupil — it  does  need  one 
who  is  highly  gifted  to  train  the  dullard.  The  lower  and 
feebler  the  mind  that  has  to  be  influenced,  the  higher  and 
more  powerful  is  the  talent  needed  to  raise  that  mind. 
Besides,  is  not  the  true  leader  ever  the  prop  and  helper  of 
the  weak  ? 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  hear  a  teacher  complain  that 
her  pupils  are  of  a  low,  ignorant  type.  Well,  it  may  be  that 
their  surroundings  are  unpromising,  and  perhaps  it  is  for  this 
very  reason  that  Divine  Providence  has  sent  them  a  bright 
intelligent  teacher !  Possibly,  too,  they  may  be  ignorant ; 
b)ut  why  are  they  at  school,  if  not  to  have  this  ignorance 
dispelled  ?  To  lose  patience  with  the  backward  scholars,  to 
stigmatise  them  as  dunces  and  simpletons,  to  reproach  them 
because  they  are  unable  to  keep  on  a  level  with  clever,  sharp 
pupils,  is  to  prove  that  the  teacher  is  more  dull  and  stupid 
than  the  poor  witless  children  themselves. 

A  Heal  Evil. — There  is  a  more  formidable  evil  than 
ignorance,  though  it  is  one  which,  perhaps,  the  average  teacher 
is  less  quick  to  discern.  This  is  contentment  with  ignorance — > 
the  heavy  dulness  that  has  no  wish  to  learn.  Here  is  a  foe 
which  all  teachers  are  imperatively  called  upon  to  combat  and 
overcome.  They  have  to  reach  the  minds  of  the  apathetic 
children  —  to  get  at  their  inner  life,  and  rouse  in  them  a 
healthy  intelligence.  If  we  all  had  a  vivid  faith  in  the 
■creative  power  of  education,  we  should  need  no  other  stimulus 


272  PARTING    COUNSELS. 


to  engage  vigorously  in  the  good  work.  But  where  is  the- 
teacher  that  reahzes  this  marvellous  power  ? 

"  Few  are  aware,"  writes  Mr.  Thring,  "  of  the  stupendous, 
fact,  that  skilful  training  as  much  produces  new  growth,  and 
new  kinds  of  growth  in  men's  mental  organism,  as  goodl 
gardening  produces  new  growths  and  new  varieties  of  plants. 
Additions  can  be  made  to  a  human  being,  which  are  quite  as- 
real  as  would  be  the  bestowal  upon  him  of  extra  limbs  and 
senses.  Experience  testifies  daily  to  the  unexpected  powers, 
that  exist  in  men,  and  which  must  be  called  out  by  education 
before  they  are  known  to  exist !  " 

Study  the  Welfare  of  the  Whole  School.— Try  to 

form  an  ideal  of  what  a  child's  attainments  ought  to  be  after 
a  school-life  of  at  least  six  or  seven  years,  and  work  steadily 
up  to  that  ideal.  Put  spirit,  life,  and  conscience  into  your 
work.  So  far  as  is  practicable  let  each  child  feel  that  he  is 
somewhat  to  you.  Labour  so  to  develop  the  abilities  bestowed 
by  God  upon  your  scholars,  that  each  one  of  them  may  grow 
in  wisdom  week  by  week  and  month  by  month.  Teachers 
who  do  the  most  good  with  the  most  pupils  are  those  who  best 
fulfil  their  important  duties. 

Study   your    Children's    Preferences.  —  Respect 

youthful  impulses  and  inclinations,  so  long  as  they  are 
innocent  and  beautiful.  Next  to  the  love  of  God,  their 
home,  and  their  country,  foster  that  love  of  nature  which  is 
inherent  in  all  young  people.  Help  them  to  satisfy  their 
legitimate  curiosity  about  birds  and  beasts  and  plants,  and 
all  the  wonderful  natural  objects  which  lie  around  them^ 
Make  your  instruction  pleasant.  Does  it  not  stand  to  reason 
that  the  only  sensible  mode  of  teaching  is  to  adapt  the  subject 
taught  to  the  mind  that  has  to  grasp  it  ?  If  a  subject  is  not 
presented  to  the  scholar  in  an  attractive  form,  some  artificial 
and  objectionable  way  of  securing  his  attention  has  to  be 
substituted ;    usually  severe   measures  are   resorted   to.      A 


PARTING   COUNSELS.  273 


member  of  a  large  school  board  recently  gave  it  as  his  opinion 
that — *'  Children  need  to  be  helped  and  stimulated  to  attend, 
by  the  use  of  the  cane,"  We  fear  there  are  not  a  few 
teachers  who  incline  to  the  same  opinion,  though  they  might 
shrink  from  expressing  it  with  such  blunt  plainness.  But 
would  not  an  hour's  quiet  reflection  convince  anyone  that  to 
"  help "  children  (save  the  mark  !)  to  attend,  by  means  of 
bodily  pain,  must  end  in  rendering  all  learning  an  object  of 
aversion  and  disgust  ? 

Strive  to  Improve  your  System.— Of  what  extreme 
consequence  is  it  that  all  instructors  should  labour  ceaselessly 
to  improve  their  methods !  However  sincerely  you  may 
wish  to  help  and  raise  your  pupils — yet  irrational,  un- 
scientific teaching  will  stand  like  a  wall  of  rock  between 
you  and  those  you  desire  to  aid.  Beware  of  prejudice, 
and  cHng  not  to  the  old,  when  you  are  convinced  that  the 
new  is  better.  Do  not  continue  to  follow  the  beaten  track 
because  it  is  the  traditionary — the  customary  one,  if  you 
have  reason  to  suspect  that  it  is  not  the  straightest 
road  to  the  production  of  this  or  that  result  ;  but  have 
courage  to  adopt  the  more  excellent  system.  Shake  yourself 
free,  once  for  all,  from  the  fallacy  that  the  acquisition  of  a 
certain  amount  of  knowledge — a  certain  degree  of  skill — is  the 
end  of  education ;  but  reahze  its  far  nobler  aim,  viz.,  the 
formation  of  character. 

Avoid  Severity.  —  The  intellect  of  a  scholar  is  often 
subjected  to  a  terrible  strain  by  the  forcing  upon  it  of 
subjects  beyond  its  grasp  ;  it  is  cruelty  to  add  to  this 
strain  by  severity.  The  child  is  often  censured  when  it 
is  doing  its  poor  little  best ;  and  to  goad  it  on  may  cause 
a  serious  breakdown  in  health,  and  possibly  result  in 
untimely  death.  Elementary  teachers  cannot  altogether  remedy 
over-pressure.  For  instance,  they  have  not  (as  we  remarked 
in  a  preceding  chapter)  the  appointment  of  the  unsuitable 


274  PARTING   COUNSELS. 


arithmetic  which  is  answerable  for  many  an  aching  head 
among  the  girls  of  our  town  schools.  But  they  have  it  in 
their  power  to  lighten  such  burdens. by  kind  encouragement, 
and  by  the  adoption  of  new  and  better  methods.  They 
should  recoil  with  horror  from  the  idea  of  threatening  or 
punishing  a  child  for  mental  incapacity  ;  or  because  it  cannot^ 
at  the  word  of  command,  concentrate  attention  on  matters- 
which  possess  for  it  neither  meaning  nor  interest. 

True  Discipline.  —  While  your  discipline  is  of  the 
firmest,  let  it  be  directed  rather  to  the  training  than  the 
crushing  of  the  child's  will.  Lead  him  to  do  right  from  high 
principle,  not  from  dread  of  your  authority.  If  you  can 
succeed  in  influencing  even  one  boy  to  act  uprightly  because 
he  loves  what  is  high  and  noble,  that  boy  may  be  of  incal- 
culable value  to  his  country  in  after  years. 

Again,  cultivate  good  habits  in  your  charges.  This  is  a 
science  in  itself.  Wrong  tendencies  are,  we  know,  born  with 
children ;  but  these  may  be,  to  a  great  degree,  counteracted 
by  the  diligent  formation  of  the  opposite  good  habits. 
Those  who  have  the  well-being  of  their  charges  at  heart 
become  wonderfully  quick-sighted  at  detecting  the  particular 
defect  or  weakness  in  each  one  of  them,  and  are  prompt  in 
applying  a  remedy. 

Two  Grave  Defects  in  Elementary  Teaching. — 

No  teacher  should  ignore  the  fact  that  English  primary  edu- 
cation, amid  some  excellencies,  has  not  a  few  grave  deficiencies. 
The  most  glaring  of  these  are— (i)  The  deplorable  narrowness 
of  the  curriculum  ;  (2)  The  well-nigh  total  failure  to  bestow  a 
love  of  knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  and  so  to  promote  habits 
of  independent  study. 

The  first-named  defect  has  already  been  dealt  with  in  the 
chapter  on  "  Class  Talks."  The  evil  of  the  second  may  be 
considerably  neutralised  by  teachers  insisting  that  each  child 
shall   do  as   much   as  possible   himself.      So  long   as   they- 


PARTING   COUNSELS.  275 


I 


persist  in  doing  all,  or  nearly  all,  for  their  pupils,  so  long  will 
they  rob  them  of  occasions  to  think— to  discover — to  do ; 
and,  consequently,  will  succed  in  rearing  only  mental  weaklings. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  assistance  is  invariably  withheld  when 
not  needed,  and  the  scholar  inspirited  to  take  as  large  a  share 
in  the  lesson  as  possible,  he  will  be  brought  up  to  be  no 
helpless,  dependent  creature,  always  looking  to  others  to  prop 
him  up  through  life ;  but  a  sturdy  worker,  who  will  leave  the 
world  better  than  he  found  it,  and  incite  others  to  tread  in  his 
footsteps. 

The  true  educator  aims  at  increasing  the  pupil's  store  of 
power — not  by  merely  helping  him  to  scramble  over  the  present 
difficulty — but  by  making  of  one  difficulty  a  stepping-stone  to 
the  conquest  of  the  next. 

Make  Provision  for  Private  Study.— It  is  indis- 
pensable to  mental  progress  that  a  scholar  be  led,  as  he 
grows  older,  to  learn  alone.  The  elder  pupils,  at  an  ate, 
might  be  required  to  work  up  certain  lessons  before-hand, 
and  a  carefully -arranged  system  of  private  study  should 
be  assigned  them.  For,  surely  it  is  self- apparent  that,  unless  a 
boy  who  leaves  school  at  thirteen  has  previously  gained  some 
idea  of  the  value  of  knowledge  and  of  the  art  of  self-instruc- 
tion, he  must  soon  forget  all  he  has  acquired,  and  sink  lower 
and  lower  as  an  intellectual  being. 

The  proper  spirit  to  cultivate  in  our  scholars  is  that  of 
self-help ;  we  must  get  them  to  learn  voluntarily  by  creating 
in  them  a  hunger  for  knowledge.  Far  more  expedient  is  it 
that  a  lad  should  end  his  school-days  with  settled  habits 
of  thinking,  with  alertness  of  mind,  and  some  power  of 
applying  himself  to  reading  and  study,  than  with  a  head 
crammed  full  of  actual  information — e.g.^  an  extensive  know- 
ledge of  dates,  ability  to  work  double  equations  or  to  draw 
neat  maps  of  all  the  countries  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

The  Practical  Help  of  the  Teacher  Essential.— 

While  insisting  upon  the  need  of  independent  work,  we  do  not 


276  PARTING  COUNSELS. 


mean  that  the  teacher's  assistance  is  to  be  dispensed  with.  On 
the  contrary,  our  children  have  urgent  need  of  being  taught — 
guided  how  to  do  their  work.  They  must  be  shewn  how  to 
master  a  subject  with  the  greatest  economy  of  force — not  left 
to  pick  up  information  anyhow ;  for  no  child  understands  by 
instinct  how  to  study  to  the  best  advantage.  So,  whether 
the  pupil's  private  study  is  done  at  home  or  in  school,  the 
teacher  ought  to  go  over  it  first  with  him — noticing  difficulties, 
directing  attention  to  the  salient  points,  and  explaining  how 
these  may  be  printed  on  the  memory  in  such  order  that  they 
will  He  ready  to  hand  when  wanted. 

Within  the  whole  range  of  the  school  course,  a  teacher  has 
hardly  any  duty  more  important  than  this.  The  young  student 
who  blunders  over  his  lessons  testifies  to  the  imperfection  of 
his  previous  training.  He  gives  no  evidence  of  his  own 
incompetence,  but  is  a  living  illustration  of  the  incompetence 
of  his  instructor. 

Lessons  Seldom  Given  Skilfully.— It  is  much  to 
be  feared  that,  out  of  the  many  thousands  of  lessons  given 
daily  in  the  schools  of  England,  few  can  be  considered 
really  effective.  Some  hints,  therefore,  for  those  who  feel 
dissatisfied  with  what  they  have  already  achieved  in  this 
direction  may  be  acceptable : — 

{a)  Prepare  each  Lesson. — Spare  no  labour  in  the  pre- 
paration of  your  instructions.  Let  each  lesson  you  give  be 
studied  beforehand  ;  not  only  the  technical  knowledge  you 
hope  to  impart,  but  the  general  scope  and  plan  of  the  lesson. 
Some  teachers  will  do  anything  sooner  than  think,  yet  half-an- 
hour  of  quiet  planning  how  to  make  their  labours  more 
fruitful,  would  often  save  days — aye,  months,  of  vexation  and 
vain  regrets. 

(b)  Make  your  Lessons  Consecutive.— Let  there  be 
connection  in  your  teaching.     If  you  have  made  it  a  subject 


m 

^  PARTING   COUNSELS.  277 

^B  of  careful  thought,  the  whole  course  of  lessons  will  be  mapped 
^m  out  in  your  mind,  and  each  one  will  pave  the  way  for  the  next. 

(c)  Calculate  the  Time  at  Disposal. — Remember  to 
plan  out  how  each  lesson  shall  begin  and  end,  and  so  arrange  as 
to  leave  a  margin  of  a  few  minutes  at  the  close,  during  which 
you  can  sum  up  what  has  been  said,  make  the  children 
realize  what  advance  they  have  made  (take  care  there  shall 
always  be  some  advance),  and  excite  their  interest  concerning 
the  next  lesson.  In  short,  try  to  leave  your  pupils  with  an 
agreeable  impression. 

(d)  Give  Prominence  to  Certain  Points.  —  Make 
concise  notes  of  those  parts  of  your  instruction  which  you 
desire  should  stand  forth  in  strong  relief.  If  your  teaching  is 
to  be  rich  in  results,  you  must  impress  on  your  scholars  that 
which  it  chiefly  imports  them  to  know  and  remember. 

(e)  Lop  Off  what  is  Superfluous. — Consider  what  you 
have  to  say,  and  keep  to  the  point.  Lessons  are  often 
lengthened  out  by  the  addition  of  a  vast  amount  of  well- 
sounding  information,  which  is  either  beyond  the  children's 
intelHgence,  or  of  no  use  in  developing  it.  This  should 
invariably  be  omitted. 

(/)  Let  it  be  your  constant  endeavour  to  make 
your  class  happy, — Try  to  lead  your  pupils,  not  drive 
them.  Manage  with  as  little  punishment  as  possible.  Banish 
the  cane;  or,  if  you  use  it,  let  it  be  to  correct  grave  moral  delin- 
quencies only.  Never  nag  or  rail  at  your  pupils;  never  grumble 
about  them.  Do  not  regard  it  as  waste  of  time  to  spend  the 
few  moments  before  a  lesson,  in  saying  some  pleasant  words — 
if  it  be  only  to  tell  the  children  how  greatly  you  enjoy  teaching 
them,  or  that  the  subject  of  the  lesson  is  a  favourite  with 
yourself.  As  a  violinist  prefaces  his  performance  by  tuning 
his  instrument,  so  do  you  prepare   for  your  instruction  by 


^78  PARTING   COUNSELS. 


putting   your   class   into   tune,    thus    securing    their    wilHng 
attention. 

There  exists  a  subtle  sympathy  between  the  teacher  and  the 
taught ;  you  have  but  to  feel  genuine  pleasure  and  interest 
in  what  is  going  on,  and,  to  a  remarkable  degree,  these 
pleasurable  feelings  will  be  transmitted  to  your  pupils. 
Teachers,  like  preachers,  must  warm  to  their  subject,  or  they 
will  vainly  seek  to  move  others. 

Bear  in  mind  that  you  have  to  deal  with 
children. — One  of  Matthew  Arnold's  last  counsels  to  the 
teachers  of  primary  schools  included  an  entreaty  that  they 
would  recollect  that  they  taught  the  very  young,  and  ac- 
cordingly should,  above  all  things,  cultivate  **  Simplicity." 
Another  educational  authority  observes — "  The  true  teacher 
knows  that  education,  like  a  building,  must  proceed  from 
below  to  above.  The  youth  of  seventeen  or  more,  is  able 
to  think  and  generalize.  In  him,  reason  and  intellect  ought 
to  be  asserting  their  supremacy,  but  a  child  of  eleven  or  twelve 
understands  chiefly  what  he  sees,  and  is  interested  in  what  he 
can  learn  of  actual  things — objects,  animals,  persons.  He  can 
be  trained  to  notice  and  observe,  but  has  little  conception  of 
the  abstract,  and  his  powers  of  reflection  are  weak."  If  we 
consider  these  facts,  we  shall  understand  why  it  is  that  the 
**  Masters  and  mistresses  of  elementary  schools  are  bound, 
beyond  all  other  teachers,  to  make  their  instruction  plain, 
clear,  and  simple.'" 

Education  must  follow  the  same  law  as  nature.  Everything 
in  nature  grows  gently  and  gradually.  The  intellect  will  grow 
in  the  same  manner,  if  it  is  nourished  with  proper  food. 


Education  Unpopular  with  the  Masses, — One  part 
of  a  teacher's  mission  in  this  country  is  to  bring  the  people  to 
look  with  a  favourable  eye  upon  education.      The  average 


PARTING   COUNSELS.  279 


Englishman  is  sceptical  as  to  the  benefit  of  knowledge ;  he 
regards  its  acquisition  as  irksome  and  profitless,  and,  if  left 
to  himself,  would  have  none  of  it. 

It  is  not  so  with  other  nations.  German  and  Sv/iss  parents 
are  equally  desirous  with  the  teachers,  that  their  children 
shall  attend  school  regularly ;  they  would  not  dream  of  with- 
holding a  child  from  instruction,  and  so  no  necessity  exists 
for  putting  the  law  in  force  against  defaulting  fathers  or 
mothers.  Education  is  popular  in  these  lands,  and  the  same 
remark  applies  to  America,  Scotland,  and  France. 

This  popularity  manifests  itself  in  early  life.  The  Scotch 
herd-boy  cons  his  Latin  Delectus  under  a  hedge,  at  the  dinner 
hour.  Thousands  of  American  youths  carry  forward  their 
own  education  by  the  light  of  a  tallow  candle  in  their  log 
cabins,  after  the  winter  day's  work  is  done.  The  German 
*'  Workhouse  orphan "  studies  English  in  his  holidays. 
Learning  is  regarded  as  valuable  even  by  the  children, 
and  a  good  education  is  universally  recognised  as  the  best 
equipment  for  youth. 

How  can  zeal  for  knowledge  be  kindled  in  our 
countrymen  ? — There  is  but  one  feasible  way,  and  that  is 
by  improving  the  schools.  Englishmen  would  undoubtedly 
interest  themselves  in  education,  if  they  saw  anything  worth 
their  interest.  But  feeling  instinctively  that — in  the  training 
their  little  ones  receive — there  is  but  little  of  practical  value, 
they,  very  naturally,  decline  to  deny  themselves  for  its  sake. 

The  people  (like  their  children)  need  good  Object  Lessons. 
Once  convince  them  that  knowledge  is  worth  the  price  we  ask 
them  to  pay  for  it  (if  not  in  hard  cash  yet  in  what  costs  them 
dear) ;  once  let  them  see  and  feel  the  advantage  of  thorough, 
practical,  intelligent  teaching  ;  and  they  will  be  found  among 
its  warmest  advocates. 

Meantime  our  educational  authorities  bewail  increasing 
irregularity  of  attendance,  and  rail  at  the  selfish  indifference 
(so  they  term  it)  evinced  by  numbers  of  parents  to  the  best 


280  PARTING    COUNSELS. 


a 


interests  of  their  offspring.  Nor  are  they  slow  to  use  such 
means  to  improve  matters  as  seem  to  them  expedient.  But 
to  beheve  that  a  love  of  learning  for  its  own  sake  may  be 
engendered  by  drastic  measures,  such  as  summoning  parents 
to  police  courts  and  punishing  them  with  fines  and  imprison- 
ment, argues  an  entire  ignorance  of  human  nature.  Such  a 
policy  will  but  increase  the  evil,  and  day  by  day  deepen  the 
national  aversion  to  education. 

When  our  schools  become  centres  of  intellectual  life  and 
happy  progress,  when  the  work  is  so  adapted  to  the  mental 
powers  of  the  children  that  they  engage  in  it  with  pleasure— if 
not  with  fervour,  when  the  teachers  are  skilful  and  sympathetic, 
and  punishments  and  penalties  all  but  discarded  because  no 
longer  necessary,  there  will  be  no  need  to  enforce  attendance. 
The  children  will  throng  the  schools  joyfully,  and  the  parents, 
with  few  exceptions,  will  be  willing  to  make  sacrifices  to  keep 
them  as  long  as  possible  under  such  benign  influences. 

This  goal  let  our  teachers  set  before  themselves.  What  a 
triumph  would  it  not  be,  thus  to  bring  about  the  much 
desired  revulsion  in  favour  of  knowledge  by  the  peaceful 
agencies  of  tact  and  skill,  labour  and  love ! 

But  to  effect  such  a  revolution,  what  diligence,  enthusiasm, 
and  self-sacrifice  are  needed !  That  exalted  conception  of 
education  which  is  the  only  true  one,  can  never  be  fully  grasped 
except  by  those  in  whom  the  desire  to  bless  and  benefit  their 
fellows  is  an  absorbing  passion.  This  noble  spirit  of  self- 
devotion  is  not  accorded  to  everyone,  but  all  have  power  to 
create  in  themselves  some  portion  of  it,  by  reflecting  often 
on  the  grandeur  of  their  vocation,  by  setting  constantly  before 
themselves  a  high  ideal  of  their  duties,  and  striving,  with  ever- 
increasing  earnestness,  to  rise  towards  that  ideal. 


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